This work was funded by R01-AR053645 from NIAMS.

All Procedures were approved by the UCSF Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and conform to national guidelines.
1. Preparation of Fixators Prior to Surgery
<ol>
 <li>Before creating stabilized fracture, one needs to assemble the custom-design external fixation device. The custom-designed external fixation frames consisted of two aluminum rings stabilized by three stainless-steel #0/56 threaded rods, 8 #2/56 hexagonal nuts, and 17 matching bolts (Small Part Inc., Miami Lakes, FL3).</li>
 <li>Two aluminum rings are needed per fracture. To one ring assemble 4 #2/56 hexagonal nuts (small Part Inc., Miami Lakes, FL) and matching bolts into the appropriate holes, these should remain loose. This will be the proximal ring. To the distal ring assemble 3 nuts and bolts, again do not tighten fully.</li>
</ol>
2. Anesthesia, Fracture Creation, and Fixator Application
<ol>
 <li>Mice (age, sex, and body weight are determined by the user) are anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of 50mg/ml Ketamine, 0.5 mg/ml Medetomidine (0.03 ml/mouse).</li>
 <li>Apply eye lubricant to the eyes of the mice and place a piece of tape across their head to protect their eyes during the procedure.</li>
 <li>The animal is placed on a heating pad for the remainder of the procedure.</li>
 <li>Transfix the proximal and distal metaphyses of the left tibia using four 0.25 mm sterile insect pins (Anticorro: Fine Science Tool, Foster City, CA) by attaching the pins to a Dremel Tool and drilling them through the bone.</li>
 <li>Pins are oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the tibia, and 90 &deg; to each other. At least 10 mm between the proximal and distal pins.</li>
 <li>Position the first ring above the proximal pins with the nuts facing inward, toward the pins. Secure the pins to the ring keeping the tibia positioned centrally within the aluminum ring.</li>
 <li>Position the second ring below the distal pins and secure the pins to the ring using the hexagonal nuts as before. Add the fourth nut-bolt combination to the distal fixator.</li>
 <li>Create the transverse fracture by three-point bending with an appropriate device. We use the gravity system of Bonnarens and Einhorn 4. Rest the posterolateral surface of the tibia across the blocks, raise the weight to a predetermined height along the drop arm and drop the weight so that it contacts the anterolateral aspect of the tibia to produce the blunt fracture. The height the weight is dropped from needs to be determined for each strain of mouse to ensure a single fracture exclusively of the tibia.</li>
 <li>Fracture is confirmed by X-ray.</li>
 <li>After confirming the fracture, three stainless steel #0/56 threaded rods are attached to the rings. Starting from the distal end insert the rod and thread a nut onto the distal ring to secure the rod. Then put another nut onto the rod, the proximal ring will sit on top of this nut. Ensure that the two rings will be held at equal distances and are not straining the pins. Secure the proximal ring to the rods with a third nut.</li>
 <li>Subcutaneous injections of buprenorphine (1.0 mg/kg) for analgesia are given immediately after surgery and animals are monitored for pain and given buprenorphine as needed.</li>
 <li>Anesthesia is reversed by administering Atipamezole, and animals are monitored until they are responsive and ambulating.</li>
</ol>
3. Distraction Osteogenesis (see also: 12,13)
To modify this procedure to accommodate distraction osteogenesis is straightforward. The rings are held in position by threaded rods, and by turning the nuts holding the rods in place the rings can be moved apart.
<ol>
 <li>Latency: For standard distraction osteogenesis using this model the fixators are placed onto the tibia and left alone for a latency period of 5 days.</li>
 <li>Distraction: Distraction osteogenesis can be performed by turning the nuts on the stabilizing rods &frac14; turn (0.25 mm) every day 7 days.</li>
 <li>Maturation: Bony bridging is observed by 10 days and complete consolidation is observed by 27 days after the completion of distraction.</li>
</ol>
4. Creation of a Critical Sized Defect
To create a critical sized defect the external fixators are applied as previously described with the following modifications.
<ol>
 <li>Before beginning the procedure the skin is cleaned with 70 % ethanol.</li>
 <li>The fixators are applied completely prior to creating the defect.</li>
 <li>The mouse is then place under the dissecting microscope to visualize the medial tibia, and an incision (5-7 mm) is made with a #10 blade on a scalpel.</li>
 <li>The muscle is gently transected and separated to expose the mid-diaphysis of the tibia.</li>
 <li>A 3 mm segment of the bone is then removed from the mid-diaphysis using scissors. Using the point of the scissors, the bone is slowly snipped away and bone fragments are removed with forceps if necessary. Care should be taken with the tips of the scissors to avoid displacing the tibia with a large mechanical force.</li>
 <li>Examine the surgical site to ensure that there are no bone fragments, as these could promote healing.</li>
 <li>Replace the muscle around the blunted ends of the tibia.</li>
 <li>Close the incision on the skin with 2-3 sutures of 6-0 Polyamine Monofilament.</li>
 <li>Anesthesia is reversed and the animals are monitored for pain and given analgesics as previously described.</li>
</ol>
5. Representative Results
When properly applied, the external fixators provide more rigid stability of the closed tibial fracture with excellent reduction (Figs. 1, 2). However, in some cases inadequate reduction (an obvious and large gap between bone ends or multiple fractures occur (Fig. 3), and these mice are excluded from analyses. Fractures stabilized using this method heal primarily via intramembranous ossification (Fig. 4). In contrast, if the fracture is not stabilized a large cartilage callus is formed in the fracture gap (Fig. 5), and this is replaced by bone through the process of intramembranous ossification.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/3552/3552fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Radiographs illustrating an external fixation device used to stabilize tibial fracture. Radiograph taken after fracture showing a well-aligned bone segments (arrowhead).
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/3552/3552fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Image of a mouse after the fixator has been applied.
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/3552/3552fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Radiograph taken after fracture shows misaligned and fragmented bone segments (arrowhead).
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/3552/3552fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Stabilized fracture heals via intramembranous ossification. Trichrome staining of stabilized fracture shows some new bone (b) at fracture site. Scale bar = 500 &mu;m.
<img alt="Figure 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/3552/3552fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Non-stabilized fracture heals via endochondral ossification. Trichrome staining of non-stabilized fracture shows cartilage (c) and bone (b) at fracture site. Scale bar = 500 &mu;m.

<ol>
	<li>Ilizarov, G. A., Lediaev, V. I., Shitin, V. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+course+of+compact+bone+reparative+regeneration+in+distraction+osteosynthesis+under+different+conditions+of+bone+fragment+fixation+(experimental+study).">The course of compact bone reparative regeneration in distraction osteosynthesis under different conditions of bone fragment fixation (experimental study).</a> Eksperimentalnaia Khirurgiia i Anesteziologiia. 14, 3-12 (1969).</li><li>Ilizarov, G. A., Deviatov, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surgical+elongation+of+the+leg.">Surgical elongation of the leg.</a> Ortopediia Travmatologiia i Protezirovanie. 32, (1971).</li><li>Thompson, Z., Miclau, T., Hu, D., Helms, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+model+for+intramembranous+ossification+during+fracture+healing.">A model for intramembranous ossification during fracture healing.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 20, 1091-1098 (2002).</li><li>Bonnarens, F., Einhorn, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+a+standard+closed+fracture+in+laboratory+animal.">Production of a standard closed fracture in laboratory animal.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 2, 97-101 (1984).</li><li>Colnot, C., Thompson, Z., Miclau, T., Werb, Z., Helms, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+fracture+repair+in+the+absence+of+MMP9.">Altered fracture repair in the absence of MMP9.</a> Development. 130, 4123-4133 (2003).</li><li>Lange, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Action+of+IL-1beta+during+fracture+healing.">Action of IL-1beta during fracture healing.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 28, 778-784 (2010).</li><li>Xing, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+roles+for+CCR2+during+fracture+healing.">Multiple roles for CCR2 during fracture healing.</a> Dis. Model Mech. 3, 451-458 (2010).</li><li>Lu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombinant+human+bone+morphogenetic+protein-7+enhances+fracture+healing+in+an+ischemic+environment.">Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-7 enhances fracture healing in an ischemic environment.</a> J. Orthop. Res. , (2009).</li><li>Yu, Y. Y., Lieu, S., Lu, C., Colnot, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bone+morphogenetic+protein+2+stimulates+endochondral+ossification+by+regulating+periosteal+cell+fate+during+bone+repair.">Bone morphogenetic protein 2 stimulates endochondral ossification by regulating periosteal cell fate during bone repair.</a> Bone. 47, 65-73 (2010).</li><li>Lu, C., Miclau, T., Hu, D., Marcucio, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ischemia+leads+to+delayed+union+during+fracture+healing:+a+mouse+model.">Ischemia leads to delayed union during fracture healing: a mouse model.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 25, 51-61 (2007).</li><li>Miclau, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+delayed+stabilization+on+fracture+healing.">Effects of delayed stabilization on fracture healing.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 25, 1552-1558 (2007).</li><li>Tay, B. K., Le, A. X., Gould, S. E., Helms, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histochemical+and+molecular+analyses+of+distraction+osteogenesis+in+a+mouse+model.">Histochemical and molecular analyses of distraction osteogenesis in a mouse model.</a> Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 16, 636-642 (1998).</li><li>Choi, P., Ogilvie, C., Thompson, Z., Miclau, T., Helms, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+and+molecular+characterization+of+a+murine+non-union+model.">Cellular and molecular characterization of a murine non-union model.</a> J. Orthop. Res. 22, 1100-1107 (2004).</li><li>Buckwalter, J. A., Marsh, E. T., J, L., Heckman, J. D., Bucholz, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Rockwood and Green's fractures in adults. , 245-271 (2001).</li><li>Garcia, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+LockingMouseNail-A+New+Implant+for+Standardized+Stable+Osteosynthesis+in+Mice.">The LockingMouseNail-A New Implant for Standardized Stable Osteosynthesis in Mice.</a> J. Surg. Res. , (2009).</li></ol>

We have nothing to disclose.

Bones heal by two different modalities depending on mechanical stability (reviewed in: 14). When left unstable a large cartilage template forms in the fracture gap that is replaced by bone to bridge the two ends of broken bone. Proximally and distally to the break, bone forms directly by intramembranous ossification within the periosteum and endosteum. In contrast, in stable fractures healing occurs exclusively via intramembranous ossification 3. However, the specific mechanisms that regulate the sw...

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of the reagent</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.25mm insect pin</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tool</td>
			<td>26000-25</td>
			<td>Blacked Anodized Steel, 0.25mm rod diameter, 4cm length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Hex Nut</td>
			<td>Small Parts</td>
			<td>#2-56</td>
			<td>1/8" length, 56 threads per inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Hex Nut</td>
			<td>Small Parts</td>
			<td>#0-80</td>
			<td>1/8" length, 80 threads per inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Machine Screw</td>
			<td>Small Parts</td>
			<td>#0-80</td>
			<td>1/8" length, 80 threads per inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Machine Cut Threaded Rod</td>
			<td>Small Parts</td>
			<td>#0-80</td>
			<td>6" length, 80 threads per inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>18-8 Stainless Steel Head Machine Screw</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>2-56 Threads, 3/6" length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>External Fixation Device</td>
			<td>Machine shop</td>
			<td>Custom-designed</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

creating rigidly stabilized fractures for assessing intramembranous ossification, distraction osteogenesis, or healing of critical sized defects

Assessing modes of skeletal repair is essential for developing therapies to be used clinically to treat fractures. Mechanical stability plays a large role in healing of bone injuries. In the worst-case scenario mechanical instability can lead to delayed or non-union in humans. However, motion can also stimulate the healing process. In fractures that have motion cartilage forms to stabilize the fracture bone ends, and this cartilage is gradually replaced by bone through recapitulation of the developmental process of endochondral ossification. In contrast, if a bone fracture is rigidly stabilized bone forms directly via intramembranous ossification. Clinically, both endochondral and intramembranous ossification occur simultaneously. To effectively replicate this process investigators insert a pin into the medullary canal of the fractured bone as described by Bonnarens4. This experimental method provides excellent lateral stability while allowing rotational instability to persist. However, our understanding of the mechanisms that regulate these two distinct processes can also be enhanced by experimentally isolating each of these processes. We have developed a stabilization protocol that provides rotational and lateral stabilization. In this model, intramembranous ossification is the only mode of healing that is observed, and healing parameters can be compared among different strains of genetically modified mice 5-7, after application of bioactive molecules 8,9, after altering physiological parameters of healing 10, after modifying the amount or time of stabilization 11, after distraction osteogenesis 12, after creation of a non-union 13, or after creation of a critical sized defect. Here, we illustrate how to apply the modified Ilizarov fixators for studying tibial fracture healing and distraction osteogenesis in mice.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Creating Rigidly Stabilized Fractures for Assessing Intramembranous Ossification, Distraction Osteogenesis, or Healing of Critical Sized Defects at JoVE.com

Creating Rigidly Stabilized Fractures for Assessing Intramembranous Ossification, Distraction Osteogenesis, or Healing of Critical Sized Defects

This article describes a method for stabilizing long bone fractures that is based on the application of modified Ilizarov external fixators 1-3. After application of the fixators and creation of the bone injury, healing can be assessed, distraction osteogenesis can be performed, or non-union or critical sized defect can be created and used to study therapeutic interventions.

Assessing modes of skeletal repair is essential for developing therapies to be used clinically to treat fractures. Mechanical stability plays a large role ...

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17.3K Views.  University of California, San Francisco. This article describes a method for stabilizing long bone fractures that is based on the application of modified Ilizarov external fixators 1-3. After application of the fixators and creation of the bone injury, healing can be assessed, distraction osteogenesis can be performed, or non-union or critical sized defect can be created and used to study therapeutic interventions.

Video: Creating Rigidly Stabilized Fractures for Assessing Intramembranous Ossification, Distraction Osteogenesis, or Healing of Critical Sized Defects

Repair of a Critical-sized Calvarial Defect Model Using Adipose-derived Stromal Cells Harvested from Lipoaspirate

Craniofacial skeletal repair and regeneration offers the promise of de novo tissue formation through a cell-based approach utilizing stem cells. Adipose-derived stromal cells (ASCs) have proven to be an abundant source of multipotent stem cells capable of undergoing osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic differentiation. Many studies have explored the osteogenic potential of these cells in vivo with the use of various scaffolding biomaterials for cellular delivery. It has been demonstrated that by utilizing an osteoconductive, hydroxyapatite-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (HA-PLGA) scaffold seeded with ASCs, a critical-sized calvarial defect, a defect that is defined by its inability to undergo spontaneous healing over the lifetime of the animal, can be effectively show robust osseous regeneration. This in vivo model demonstrates the basis of translational approaches aimed to regenerate the bone tissue - the cellular component and biological matrix. This method serves as a model for the ultimate clinical application of a progenitor cell towards the repair of a specific tissue defect.

This protocol describes the isolation of adipose-derived stromal cells from lipoaspirate and the creation of a 4 mm critical-sized calvarial defect to evaluate skeletal regeneration.

Craniofacial skeletal repair and regeneration offers the promise of de novo tissue formation through a cell-based approach utilizing stem cells. ...

Murine Model of Wound Healing

Wound healing and repair are the most complex biological processes that occur in human life. After injury, multiple biological pathways become activated. Impaired wound healing, which occurs in diabetic patients for example, can lead to severe unfavorable outcomes such as amputation. There is, therefore, an increasing impetus to develop novel agents that promote wound repair. The testing of these has been limited to large animal models such as swine, which are often impractical. Mice represent the ideal preclinical model, as they are economical and amenable to genetic manipulation, which allows for mechanistic investigation. However, wound healing in a mouse is fundamentally different to that of humans as it primarily occurs via contraction. Our murine model overcomes this by incorporating a splint around the wound. By splinting the wound, the repair process is then dependent on epithelialization, cellular proliferation and angiogenesis, which closely mirror the biological processes of human wound healing. Whilst requiring consistency and care, this murine model does not involve complicated surgical techniques and allows for the robust testing of promising agents that may, for example, promote angiogenesis or inhibit inflammation. Furthermore, each mouse acts as its own control as two wounds are prepared, enabling the application of both the test compound and the vehicle control on the same animal. In conclusion, we demonstrate a practical, easy-to-learn, and robust model of wound healing, which is comparable to that of humans.

A murine model of cutaneous wound healing that can be used to assess therapeutic compounds in physiological and pathophysiological settings.

Wound healing and repair are the most complex biological processes that occur in human life. After injury, multiple biological pathways become activated. ...

Assessing Changes in Volatile General Anesthetic Sensitivity of Mice after Local or Systemic Pharmacological Intervention

One desirable endpoint of general anesthesia is the state of unconsciousness, also known as hypnosis. Defining the hypnotic state in animals is less straightforward than it is in human patients. A widely used behavioral surrogate for hypnosis in rodents is the loss of righting reflex (LORR), or the point at which the animal no longer responds to their innate instinct to avoid the vulnerability of dorsal recumbency. We have developed a system to assess LORR in 24 mice simultaneously while carefully controlling for potential confounds, including temperature fluctuations and varying gas flows. These chambers permit reliable assessment of anesthetic sensitivity as measured by latency to return of the righting reflex (RORR) following a fixed anesthetic exposure. Alternatively, using stepwise increases (or decreases) in anesthetic concentration, the chambers also enable determination of a population's sensitivity to induction (or emergence) as measured by EC50 and Hill slope. Finally, the controlled environmental chambers described here can be adapted for a variety of alternative uses, including inhaled delivery of other drugs, toxicology studies, and simultaneous real-time monitoring of vital signs.

Loss of the righting reflex has long served as a standard behavioral surrogate for unconsciousness, also called hypnosis, in laboratory animals. Alterations in volatile anesthetic sensitivity caused by pharmacological interventions can be detected with a carefully controlled high-throughput assessment system, which may be adapted for delivery of any inhaled therapeutic.

One desirable endpoint of general anesthesia is  the state of unconsciousness, also known as hypnosis. Defining the hypnotic state in animals is  less ...

Minimally Invasive Thumb-sized Pterional Craniotomy for Surgical Clip Ligation of Unruptured Anterior Circulation Aneurysms

Less invasive surgical approaches for intracranial aneurysm clipping may reduce length of hospital stay, surgical morbidity, treatment cost, and improve patient outcomes. We present our experience with a minimally invasive pterional approach for anterior circulation aneurysms performed in a major tertiary cerebrovascular center and compare the results with an aged matched dataset from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS). From August 2008 to December 2012, 22 elective aneurysm clippings on patients &#8804;55 years of age were performed by the same dual fellowship-trained cerebrovascular/endovascular neurosurgeon. One patient (4.5%) experienced transient post-operative complications. 18 of 22 patients returned for follow-up imaging and there were no recurrences through an average duration of 22 months. A search in the NIS database from 2008 to 2010, also for patients aged &#8804;55 years of age, yielded 1,341 hospitalizations for surgical clip ligation of unruptured cerebral aneurysms. Inpatient length of stay and hospital charges at our institution using the minimally invasive thumb-sized pterional technique were nearly half that of NIS (length of stay: 3.2 vs 5.7 days; hospital charges: $52,779 vs. $101,882). The minimally invasive thumb-sized pterional craniotomy allows good exposure of unruptured small and medium-sized supraclinoid anterior circulation aneurysms. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage from key subarachnoid cisterns and constant bimanual microsurgical techniques avoid the need for retractors which can cause contusions, localized venous infarctions, and post-operative cerebral edema at the retractor sites. Utilizing this set of techniques has afforded our patients with a shorter hospital stay at a lower cost compared to the national average.

Minimally invasive thumb-sized pterional craniotomy for aneurysm clipping has afforded our patients with a shorter hospital stay at a lower cost compared to the national average.

Less invasive surgical approaches for intracranial aneurysm clipping may reduce length of hospital stay, surgical morbidity, treatment cost, and improve ...

A Simple Critical-sized Femoral Defect Model in Mice

While bone has a remarkable capacity for regeneration, serious bone trauma often results in damage that does not properly heal. In fact, one tenth of all limb bone fractures fail to heal completely due to the extent of the trauma, disease, or age of the patient. Our ability to improve bone regenerative strategies is critically dependent on the ability to mimic serious bone trauma in test animals, but the generation and stabilization of large bone lesions is technically challenging. In most cases, serious long bone trauma is mimicked experimentally by establishing a defect that will not naturally heal. This is achieved by complete removal of a bone segment that is larger than 1.5 times the diameter of the bone cross-section. The bone is then stabilized with a metal implant to maintain proper orientation of the fracture edges and allow for mobility. 
Due to their small size and the fragility of their long bones, establishment of such lesions in mice are beyond the capabilities of most research groups. As such, long bone defect models are confined to rats and larger animals. Nevertheless, mice afford significant research advantages in that they can be genetically modified and bred as immune-compromised strains that do not reject human cells and tissue.
Herein, we demonstrate a technique that facilitates the generation of a segmental defect in mouse femora using standard laboratory and veterinary equipment. With practice, fabrication of the fixation device and surgical implantation is feasible for the majority of trained veterinarians and animal research personnel. Using example data, we also provide methodologies for the quantitative analysis of bone healing for the model.

Animal models are frequently employed to mimic serious bone injury in biomedical research. Due to their small size, establishment of stabilized bone lesions in mice are beyond the capabilities of most research groups. Herein, we describe a simple method for establishing and analyzing experimental femoral defects in mice.

While bone has a remarkable capacity for regeneration, serious bone trauma often results in damage that does not properly heal. In fact, one tenth of all ...

Direct Mouse Trauma/Burn Model of Heterotopic Ossification

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is the formation of bone outside of the skeleton which forms following major trauma, burn injuries, and orthopaedic surgical procedures. The majority of animal models used to study HO rely on the application of exogenous substances, such as bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), exogenous cell constructs, or genetic mutations in BMP signaling. While these models are useful they do not accurately reproduce the inflammatory states that cause the majority of cases of HO. Here we describe a burn/tenotomy model in mice that reliably produces focused HO. This protocol involves creating a 30% total body surface area partial thickness contact burn on the dorsal skin as well as division of the Achilles tendon at its midpoint. Relying solely on traumatic injury to induce HO at a predictable location allows for time-course study of endochondral heterotopic bone formation from intrinsic physiologic processes and environment only. This method could prove instrumental in understanding the inflammatory and osteogenic pathways involved in trauma-induced HO. Furthermore, because HO develops in a predictable location and time-course in this model, it allows for research to improve early imaging strategies and treatment modalities to prevent HO formation.

An Achilles tenotomy and burn injury model of heterotopic ossification allows for the reliable study of trauma induced ectopic bone formation without the application of exogenous factors.

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is the formation of bone outside of the skeleton which forms following major trauma, burn injuries, and orthopaedic surgical ...

Establishment of a Segmental Femoral Critical-size Defect Model in Mice Stabilized by Plate Osteosynthesis

The use of tissue-engineered bone constructs is an appealing strategy to overcome drawbacks of autografts for the treatment of massive bone defects. As a model organism, the mouse has already been widely used in bone-related research. Large diaphyseal bone defect models in mice, however, are sparse and often use bone fixation which fills the bone marrow cavity and does not provide optimal mechanical stability. The objectives of the current study were to develop a critical-size, segmental, femoral defect in nude mice. A 3.5-mm mid-diaphyseal femoral ostectomy (approximately 25% of the femur length) was performed using a dedicated jig, and was stabilized with an anterior located locking plate and 4 locking screws. The bone defect was subsequently either left empty or filled with a bone substitute (syngenic bone graft or coralline scaffold). Bone healing was monitored noninvasively using radiography and in vivo micro-computed-tomography and was subsequently assessed by ex vivo micro-computed-tomography and undecalcified histology after animal sacrifice, 10 weeks postoperatively. The recovery of all mice was excellent, a full-weight-bearing was observed within one day following the surgical procedure. Furthermore, stable bone fixation and consistent fixation of the implanted materials were achieved in all animals tested throughout the study. When the bone defects were left empty, non-union was consistently obtained. In contrast, when the bone defects were filled with syngenic bone grafts, bone union was always observed. When the bone defects were filled with coralline scaffolds, newly-formed bone was observed in the interface between bone resection edges and the scaffold, as well as within a short distance within the scaffold. 
The present model describes a reproducible critical-size femoral defect stabilized by plate osteosynthesis with low morbidity in mice. The new load-bearing segmental bone defect model could be useful for studying the underlying mechanisms in bone regeneration pertinent to orthopaedic applications.

Although mouse models are invaluable tools for bone tissue engineering, models of long bone defects are sparse. This need motivated development of the present protocol which uses a locking plate with four screws and a dedicated jig to perform and stabilize a reproducible, femoral, critical-size defect with low morbidity.

The use of tissue-engineered bone constructs is an appealing strategy to overcome drawbacks of autografts for the treatment of massive bone defects. As a ...

Scleral Cross-linking Using Riboflavin and Ultraviolet-A Radiation for Prevention of Axial Myopia in a Rabbit Model

Myopic individuals, especially those with severe myopia, are at higher-than-normal risk of cataract, glaucoma, retinal detachment and chorioretinal abnormalities. In addition, pathological myopia is a common irreversible cause of visual impairment and blindness1-3. Our study demonstrates the effect of scleral crosslinking using riboflavin and ultraviolet-A radiation on the development of axial myopia in a rabbit model. The axial length of the eyeball was measured by A-scan ultrasound in New Zealand white rabbits aged 13 days (male and female). The eye then underwent 360&#176; conjunctival peritomy with scleral crosslinking, followed by tarsorrhaphy. Axial elongation was induced in 13 day-old New Zealand rabbits by suturing their right eye eyelids (tarsorrhaphy). The eyes were divided into quadrants, and every quadrant had two scleral irradiation zones, each with an area of 0.2 cm&#178; and a radius of 4 mm. Crosslinking was performed by dropping 0.1% dextran-free riboflavin-5-phosphate onto the irradiation zones 20 sec before ultraviolet-A irradiation and every 20 sec during the 200 sec irradiation time. UVA radiation (370 nm) was applied perpendicular to the sclera at 57 mW/cm&#178; (total UVA light dose, 57 J/cm&#178;). Tarsorrhaphies were removed on day 55, followed by repeated axial length measurements. This study demonstrates that scleral crosslinking with riboflavin and ultraviolet-A radiation effectively prevents occlusion-induced axial elongation in a rabbit model.

We demonstrate the effect of scleral crosslinking with riboflavin and UVA on an axial elongation rabbit eye. Axial elongation was induced in 13 day-old New Zealand rabbits (male and female) by suturing their right eye eyelids (tarsorrhaphy).

Myopic individuals, especially those with severe myopia, are at higher-than-normal risk of cataract, glaucoma, retinal detachment and chorioretinal ...

The Generation of Closed Femoral Fractures in Mice: A Model to Study Bone Healing

Bone fractures impose a tremendous socio-economic burden on patients, in addition to significantly affecting their quality of life. Therapeutic strategies that promote efficient bone healing are non-existent and in high demand. Effective and reproducible animal models of fractures healing are needed to understand the complex biological processes associated with bone regeneration. Many animal models of fracture healing have been generated over the years; however, murine fracture models have recently emerged as powerful tools to study bone healing. A variety of open and closed models have been developed, but the closed femoral fracture model stands out as a simple method for generating rapid and reproducible results in a physiologically relevant manner. The goal of this surgical protocol is to generate unilateral closed femoral fractures in mice and facilitate a post-fracture stabilization of the femur by inserting an intramedullary steel rod. Although devices such as a nail or a screw offer greater axial and rotational stability, the use of an intramedullary rod provides a sufficient stabilization for consistent healing outcomes without producing new defects in the bone tissue or damaging nearby soft tissue. Radiographic imaging is used to monitor the progression of callus formation, bony union, and subsequent remodeling of the bony callus. Bone healing outcomes are typically associated with the strength of the healed bone and measured with torsional testing. Still, understanding the early cellular and molecular events associated with fracture repair is critical in the study of bone tissue regeneration. The closed femoral fracture model in mice with intramedullary fixation serves as an attractive platform to study bone fracture healing and evaluate therapeutic strategies to accelerate healing.

The murine closed femoral fracture model is a powerful platform to study fracture healing and novel therapeutic strategies to accelerate bone regeneration. The goal of this surgical protocol is to generate unilateral closed femoral fractures in mice using an intramedullary steel rod to stabilize the femur.

Bone fractures impose a tremendous socio-economic burden on patients, in addition to significantly affecting their quality of life. Therapeutic strategies ...

Fracture Apparatus Design and Protocol Optimization for Closed-stabilized Fractures in Rodents

The reliable generation of consistent stabilized fractures in animal models is essential for understanding the biology of bone regeneration and developing therapeutics and devices. However, available injury models are plagued by inconsistency resulting in wasted animals and resources and imperfect data. To address this problem of fracture heterogeneity, the purpose of the method described herein is to optimize fracture generation parameters specific to each animal and yield a consistent fracture location and pattern. This protocol accounts for variations in bone size and morphology that may exist between mouse strains and can be adapted to generate consistent fractures in other species, such as rat. Additionally, a cost-effective, adjustable fracture apparatus is described. Compared to current stabilized fracture techniques, the optimization protocol and new fracture apparatus demonstrate increased consistency in stabilized fracture patterns and locations. Using optimized parameters specific to the sample type, the described protocol increases the precision of induced traumas, minimizing the fracture heterogeneity typically observed in closed-fracture generation procedures.

The goal of the protocol is to optimize the fracture generation parameters to yield consistent fractures. This protocol accounts for the variations in bone size and morphology that may exist between animals. Additionally, a cost-effective, adjustable fracture apparatus is described.

The reliable generation of consistent stabilized fractures in animal models is essential for understanding the biology of bone regeneration and developing ...

Creating Rigidly Stabilized Fractures for Assessing Intramembranous Ossification, Distraction Osteogenesis, or Healing of Critical Sized Defects

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