Name: real-time dc-dynamic biasing method for switching time improvement in severely underdamped fringing-field electrostatic mems actuators
Uploaded: 2014-08-15T17:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-Time DC-dynamic Biasing Method for Switching Time Improvement in Severely Underdamped Fringing-field Electrostatic MEMS Actuators at JoVE.com

The authors wish to thank Ryan Tung for his assistance and useful technical discussions.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of the Birck Nanotechnology Center technical staff. This work was supported by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency under the Purdue Microwave Reconfigurable Evanescent-Mode Cavity Filters Study. And also by NNSA Center of Prediction of Reliability, Integrity and Survivability of Microsystems and Department of Energy under Award Number DE-FC5208NA28617. The views, opinions, and/or findings contained in this paper/presentation are those of the authors/presenters and should not be interpreted as representing the official views or policies, either expressed or implied, of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or the Department of Defense.

1. Fabrication of EFFA MEMS Fixed-fixed Beams (See Figure 3 for Summarized Process)
<ol>
	<li>UV lithography and chemical wet etch of silicon dioxide with buffered hydrofluoric acid (CAUTION27).
	<ol>
		<li>Use an oxidized, low resistivity silicon substrate.</li>
		<li>Fill a glass beaker with acetone28 (enough to submerge the sample), place the sample in the acetone filled beaker, and sonicate for 5 min in a water bath sonicator.</li>
		<li>Without drying, directly transfer the sample from the ac...

<ol>
	<li>Rebeiz, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> RF MEMS: Theory, Design, and Technology. , (2003).</li><li>Senturia, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Microsystem Design. , (2001).</li><li>Bouchaud, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Propelled by HP Inkjet Sales, STMicroelectronics Remains Top MEMS Foundry. , (2011).</li><li>Lantowski, K. G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Future+of+Cinema+Has+Arrived:+More+Than+50,000.">The Future of Cinema Has Arrived: More Than 50,000.</a> Theatre Screens Worldwide Feature The Brightest, 2D/3D Digital Cinema Experience With DLP Cinema. , (2011).</li><li>Bosch-Wachtel, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Knowles Ships 2 Billionth SiSonic MEMS Microphone. , (2011).</li><li>Burke, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Mirasol Display Capabilities Add Color and Interactivity to Improve User Experience for Renowned Jin Yong Branded Device. , (2012).</li><li>Bettler, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> MEMStronics Captures Prestigious R &amp; D 100 Award. , (2011).</li><li>Marsh, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Omron Releases New RF MEMS Switch with Superior High Frequency Characteristics rated to 100 Million Operations. , (2008).</li><li>Rosa, M. A., Bruyker, D. D., Volkel, A. R., Peeters, E., Dunec, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+external+electrode+configuration+for+the+electrostatic+actuation+of+MEMS+based+devices.">A novel external electrode configuration for the electrostatic actuation of MEMS based devices.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 14, 446-451 (2004).</li><li>Rottenberg, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrostatic+fringing-field+actuator+(EFFA):+application+towards+a+low-complexity+thin+film+RF-MEMS+technology.">Electrostatic fringing-field actuator (EFFA): application towards a low-complexity thin film RF-MEMS technology.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 17, S204-S210 (2007).</li><li>Allen, W. N., Small, J., Liu, X., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bandwidth-optimal+single+shunt-capacitor+matching+networks+for+parallel+RC+loads+of+Q+&gt;&gt;+1.">Bandwidth-optimal single shunt-capacitor matching networks for parallel RC loads of Q &gt;&gt; 1.</a> Asia-Pacific Microw. Conf (Singapore). , 2128-2131 (2009).</li><li>Small, J., Liu, X., Garg, A., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrostatically+tunable+analog+single+crystal+silicon+fringing-field+MEMS+varactor.">Electrostatically tunable analog single crystal silicon fringing-field MEMS varactor.</a> Asia-Pacific Microw Conf (Singapore). , 575-578 (2009).</li><li>Liu, X., Small, J., Berdy, D., Katehi, L. P. B., Chappell, W. J., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+mechanical+vibration+on+the+performance+of+RF+MEMS+evanescent-mode+tunable+resonators.">Impact of mechanical vibration on the performance of RF MEMS evanescent-mode tunable resonators.</a> IEEE Microw. Wireless Compon. Lett. 21, 406-408 (2011).</li><li>Small, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrostatic+fringing+field+actuation+for+pull-in+free+RF-MEMS+analog+tunable+resonators.">Electrostatic fringing field actuation for pull-in free RF-MEMS analog tunable resonators.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 22, 095004 (2012).</li><li>Su, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> A lateral-drive method to address pull-in failure in MEMS. , (2008).</li><li>Scott, S., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+capacitively-loaded+MEMS+slot+element+for+wireless+temperature+sensing+of+up+to+300&#176;C+.">A capacitively-loaded MEMS slot element for wireless temperature sensing of up to 300&#176;C .</a> , 1161-1164 (2009).</li><li>Scott, S., Sadeghi, F., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inherently-robust+300C+MEMS+sensor+for+wireless+health+monitoring+of+ball+and+rolling+element+bearings.">Inherently-robust 300C MEMS sensor for wireless health monitoring of ball and rolling element bearings.</a> , 975-978 (2009).</li><li>Lee, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-contact+electrostatic+microactuator+using+slit+structures:+theory+and+a+preliminary+test.">Non-contact electrostatic microactuator using slit structures: theory and a preliminary test.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 17, 2186-2196 (2007).</li><li>Su, J., Yang, H., Fay, P., Porod, W., Berstein, G. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+surface+micromachined+offset-drive+method+to+extend+the+electrostatic+travel+range.">A surface micromachined offset-drive method to extend the electrostatic travel range.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 20, 015004 (2010).</li><li>Small, J., Fruehling, A., Garg, A., Liu, X., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DC-dynamic+biasing+for+&gt;50x+switching+time+improvement+in+severely+underdamped+fringing-field+electrostatic+MEMS+actuators.">DC-dynamic biasing for &gt;50x switching time improvement in severely underdamped fringing-field electrostatic MEMS actuators.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 22, (2012).</li><li>Borovic, B., Liu, A. Q., Popa, D., Cai, H., Lewis, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open-loop+versus+closed-loop+control+of+MEMS+devices:+Choices+and+issues.">Open-loop versus closed-loop control of MEMS devices: Choices and issues.</a> J. Micromech. Microeng. 15, 1917-1924 (2005).</li><li>Pons-Nin, J., Rodriquez, A., Castaner, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Voltage+and+pull-in+time+in+current+drive+of+electrostatic+actuators.">Voltage and pull-in time in current drive of electrostatic actuators.</a> J. Microelectromech. Syst. 11, 196-205 (2002).</li><li>Czaplewski, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Soft+Landing+Waveform+for+Actuation+of+a+Single-Pole+Single-Throw+Ohmic+RF+MEMS+Switch.">A Soft Landing Waveform for Actuation of a Single-Pole Single-Throw Ohmic RF MEMS Switch.</a> J. Microelectromech. Syst. 15, 1586-1594 (2006).</li><li>Elata, D., Bamberger, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+dynamic+pull-in+of+electrostatic+actuators+with+multiple+degrees+of+freedom+and+multiple+voltage+sources.">On the dynamic pull-in of electrostatic actuators with multiple degrees of freedom and multiple voltage sources.</a> J. Microelectromech. Syst. 15, 131-140 (2006).</li><li>Chen, K. S., Ou, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+positioning+and+impact+minimizing+of+MEMS+devices+by+suppression+motion-induced+vibration+by+command+shaping+method.">Fast positioning and impact minimizing of MEMS devices by suppression motion-induced vibration by command shaping method.</a> , 1103-1106 (2009).</li><li>Chen, K. S., Yang, T. S., Yin, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Residual+vibration+suppression+for+duffing+nonlinear+systems+with+electromagnetical+actuation+using+nonlinear+command+shaping+techniques.">Residual vibration suppression for duffing nonlinear systems with electromagnetical actuation using nonlinear command shaping techniques.</a> ASME J. Vibration and Acoustics. 128, 778-789 (2006).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Transene Sulfite Gold TSG-250. Product Number: 110-TSG-250. , (2012).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Gold etchant type TFA. Product Number: 060-0015000. , (2012).</li><li>Garg, A., Small, J., Mahapatro, A., Liu, X., Peroulis, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+sacrificial+layer+type+on+thin+film+metal+residual+stress.">Impact of sacrificial layer type on thin film metal residual stress.</a> , 1052-1055 (2009).</li></ol>

Low residual stress Au film deposition and a dry release with XeF2 are critically components in the successful fabrication of the device. Electrostatic fringing-field actuators provide relatively low forces when compared to parallel-plate field actuators. Typical MEMS thin film stresses of &#62;60 MPa will result in excessively high drive voltages which can potentially compromise the reliability of EFFA MEMS. For this reason the electroplating recipe is carefully characterized to yield a thin film with low bi-...

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) utilize several actuation mechanisms to achieve mechanical displacement. The most popular are thermal, piezoelectric, magnetostatic, and electrostatic. For short switching time, electrostatic actuation is the most popular technique1,2. In practice, critically-damped mechanical designs deliver the best compromise between initial rise time and settling time. Upon applying the DC bias and actuating the membrane down towards the pull-down electrode, the settling time is not a significant issue as the membrane will snap down and adhere to the dielectric coated actuation electrode. Several applications have benefited from the aforementioned electrostatic actuation design3-8. However, the presence of the dielectric coated pull-down electrode makes the actuator susceptible to dielectric charging and stiction.
MEMS membranes can utilize an underdamped mechanical design to achieve a fast initial rise time. An example of an underdamped mechanical design is the electrostatic fringing-field actuated (EFFA) MEMS. This topology has exhibited far less vulnerability to typical failure mechanisms that plague electrostatic based designs9-20. The absence of the parallel counter electrode and consequently the parallel electric field is why these MEMS are appropriately called &#8220;fringing-field&#8221; actuated (Figure 1). For the EFFA design, the pull-down electrode is split into two separate electrodes that are positioned laterally offset to the moving membrane, completely eliminating the overlap between the movable and stationary parts of the device. However, the removal of the substrate from beneath the movable membrane significantly reduces the squeeze film damping component thereby increasing the settling time. Figure 2B&#160;is an example of the settling time in response to standard step biasing. Transient, or DC-dynamic applied biasing in real-time can be used to improve the settling time20-26. Figures 2C and 2D qualitatively illustrate&#160;how a time varying waveform can effectively cancel the ringing. Previous research efforts utilize numerical methods to calculate the precise voltage and timings of the input bias to improve the switching time. The method in this work uses compact closed form expressions to calculate the input bias waveform parameters. Additionally, previous work focused on parallel plate actuation. While the structures are designed to be underdamped, squeeze-film damping is still available in this configuration. The actuation method presented in this work is fringing-field actuation. In this configuration squeeze-film damping is effectively eliminated. This represents an extreme case where the mechanical damping of the MEMS beam is very low. This paper describes how to fabricate the EFFA MEMS devices and perform the measurement to experimentally validate the waveform concept.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="746">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Chemical</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Catalogue number</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Comments (optional)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Buffered oxide etchant</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Baker</td>
			<td>1178</td>
			<td>Silicon dioxide etch, Ti etch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Acetone</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Baker</td>
			<td>5356</td>
			<td>wafer clean</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Isopropyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Honeywell</td>
			<td>BDH-140</td>
			<td>wafer clean</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hexamethyldisilizane</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Baker</td>
			<td>5797</td>
			<td>adhesion promoter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Microposit SC 1827 Positive Photoresist</td>
			<td>Shipley Europe Ltd</td>
			<td>44090</td>
			<td>Pattern, electroplating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microposit MF-26A developer</td>
			<td>Shipley Europe Ltd</td>
			<td>31200</td>
			<td>Develop SC 1827</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Tetramethylammonium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>334901</td>
			<td>Bulk Si etch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hydrofluroic acid</td>
			<td>Sciencelab.com</td>
			<td>SLH2227</td>
			<td>Silicon dioxide etch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sulfuric acid</td>
			<td>Sciencelab.com</td>
			<td>SLS2539</td>
			<td>wafer clean</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hydrogen peroxide</td>
			<td>Sciencelab.com</td>
			<td>SLH1552</td>
			<td>Wafer clean</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Transene Sulfite Gold TSG-250</td>
			<td>Transense</td>
			<td>110-TSG-250</td>
			<td>Au electroplating solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Baker PRS-3000 Positive Resist Stripper</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Baker</td>
			<td>6403</td>
			<td>Photoresist stripper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Gold etchant type TFA</td>
			<td>Transense</td>
			<td>060-0015000</td>
			<td>Au etch</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

real-time dc-dynamic biasing method for switching time improvement in severely underdamped fringing-field electrostatic mems actuators

Mechanically underdamped electrostatic fringing-field MEMS actuators are well known for their fast switching operation in response to a unit step input bias voltage. However, the tradeoff for the improved switching performance is a relatively long settling time to reach each gap height in response to various applied voltages. Transient applied bias waveforms are employed to facilitate reduced switching times for electrostatic fringing-field MEMS actuators with high mechanical quality factors. Removing the underlying substrate of the fringing-field actuator creates the low mechanical damping environment necessary to effectively test the concept. The removal of the underlying substrate also a has substantial improvement on the reliability performance of the device in regards to failure due to stiction. Although DC-dynamic biasing is useful in improving settling time, the required slew rates for typical MEMS devices may place aggressive requirements on the charge pumps for fully-integrated on-chip designs. Additionally, there may be challenges integrating the substrate removal step into the back-end-of-line commercial CMOS processing steps. Experimental validation of fabricated actuators demonstrates an improvement of 50x in switching time when compared to conventional step biasing results. Compared to theoretical calculations, the experimental results are in good agreement.

The setup in Figure 4 is used to capture the deflection versus time characteristics of the MEMS bridges. By using the laser doppler vibrometer in its continuous measurement mode, the precise voltage and time parameters can be found to result in minimum beam oscillation for the desired gap height. Figure 5 illustrates an example beam deflection corresponding to the 60 V gap height. It is seen that virtually all of the oscillation is removed. Not only is the dynamic waveform useful for one...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-Time DC-dynamic Biasing Method for Switching Time Improvement in Severely Underdamped Fringing-field Electrostatic MEMS Actuators at JoVE.com

Real-Time DC-dynamic Biasing Method for Switching Time Improvement in Severely Underdamped Fringing-field Electrostatic MEMS Actuators

The robust device design of fringing-field electrostatic MEMS actuators results in inherently low squeeze-film damping conditions and long settling times when performing switching operations using conventional step biasing. Real-time switching time improvement with DC-dynamic waveforms reduces the settling time of fringing-field MEMS actuators when transitioning between up-to-down and down-to-up states.

Mechanically underdamped electrostatic fringing-field MEMS actuators are well known for their fast switching operation in response to a unit step input ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Fabrication Process of Silicone-based Dielectric Elastomer Actuators

This contribution demonstrates the fabrication process of dielectric elastomer transducers (DETs). DETs are stretchable capacitors consisting of an ...

Compact Lens-less Digital Holographic Microscope for MEMS Inspection and Characterization

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and ...

Free-form Light Actuators &#8212; Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Free-form Light Actuators ÃƒÂ¢Ã¢â€šÂ¬Ã¢â‚¬Â Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are smart materials capable of reversible shape-change in response to external stimuli, and have attracted ...

Fabrication of 3D Carbon Microelectromechanical Systems (C-MEMS)

Fabrication of 3D Carbon Microelectromechanical Systems C-MEMS

A wide range of carbon sources are available in nature, with a variety of micro-/nanostructure configurations. Here, a novel technique to fabricate long ...

Design and Characterization Methodology for Efficient Wide Range Tunable MEMS Filters

Here, we demonstrate the advantages of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) over conventional techniques (the network analyzer), as well as the techniques ...

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

The quasi 2D electron system (q2DES) that forms at the interface between LaAlO3 (LAO) and SrTiO3 (STO) has attracted much attention from the oxide ...

Fabrication of Soft Pneumatic Network Actuators with Oblique Chambers

Soft pneumatic network actuators have become one of the most promising actuation devices in soft robotics which benefits from their large bending ...

Optimized Sealing Process and Real-Time Monitoring of Glass-to-Metal Seal Structures

Residual stress is an essential factor to keeping the hermeticity and robustness of a glass-to-metal seal structure. The purpose of this report is to ...

Rapid Manufacturing of Thin Soft Pneumatic Actuators and Robots

This protocol describes a method for rapid manufacturing of soft pneumatic actuators and robots with an ultrathin form factor using a heat press and a ...