The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the US Forest Service Forest Health Protection Evaluation Monitoring and Special Technology Development Programs that have supported the development, modification and application of the protocol described here to identify trees that are resistant and susceptible to the beech scale insect.&#160;We also are grateful to the Holden Arboretum, Kirtland, OH, for their continued partnership and support of our American beech resistance screening program.

1. Plant Material: Mature Field Trees, Potted Seedlings, or Potted Grafts
<ol>
	<li>For field testing, select mature healthy American beech trees that show no signs of scale infestation or disease for testing for possible resistance. Visibly susceptible trees will also need to be identified to be used as a control (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>For testing potted seedlings or grafts, collect and germinate beechnuts as described in Koch &#38; Carey, 2004 or graft scion as described in Carey et al, 2013.</li>
	<li>Grow seedlings or grafts in potting soil mix amended with 47 g micronutrients, 477 g slow release fertilizer 15N-3.9P-9.9K, 700 g coarse perlite and 75 g aluminum sulfate per 2.8 cu. ft. bag. If needed later in the growing season, fertilize plants weekly with soluble 17N-1.3P-14.1K at 200 ppm nitrogen.</li>
	<li>During the growing season, keep plants in a shade house. Allow plants to go dormant outside in the fall prior to moving them to a controlled temperature storage facility (~4 &#176;C) from November through April.</li>
</ol>
2. Collection of Beech Scale Eggs
<ol>
	<li>In a BBD-infested stand, inspect heavily infested trees (easily identified by their &#8220;whitewashed&#8221; appearance, Figure 1A) with a hand magnifying glass to confirm the presence of eggs, typically abundant from mid-July to mid-August.</li>
	<li>Use a paintbrush to gently brush the white waxy clumps of adult scale insects, eggs and other debris, into a plastic sealable one gallon collection bag (Figure 1B). Collect from a minimum of three different trees at least 12 m apart.</li>
	<li>If needed, store eggs in the sealed collection bag for up to two weeks at 4 &#176;C. Tape a small piece (2.5 cm square) of dampened polyethylene foam to the inside of the bag to prevent the eggs from drying out.</li>
	<li>To separate the scale eggs (0.15 x 0.25 mm) from the adults (0.60 mm) and debris, construct a sieve using a short piece of 2&#8217; PVC pipe and a coupling to support a square piece of 250 micron nylon mesh (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Empty the mixture of adults, wax, eggs, and debris from the collection bag onto the sieve and use a small paint brush to gently encourage the eggs to pass through the mesh into a glass Petri dish below. Plastic Petri dishes&#160;should be avoided because they hold more static electricity, making it difficult to move the eggs. Eggs before and after sieving are shown in Figure 3.</li>
	<li>Purified eggs can be stored in the Petri dish at 4 &#176;C for at least a week. To prevent the eggs from drying out, tape a damp piece of foam to the lid and seal with Parafilm.</li>
</ol>
3. Egg Viability Assays
<ol>
	<li>To assess egg viability, use a 10 cc syringe to apply a thin ring of petroleum jelly around the circumference of the bottom of a 60 mm glass Petri dish (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Transfer about 100 eggs to the center of the ring, place the lid on the Petri dish and seal with Parafilm. Allow the sealed Petri dish to remain undisturbed at room temperature for 2 weeks, or 3 weeks if eggs were stored at 4 &#176;C prior to beginning the assay.</li>
	<li>Hatched nymphs will become stuck in the petroleum jelly and can be easily counted, and empty eggs are easily distinguished from unhatched eggs by their color and sheen (Figure 4B). Calculate viability by dividing the number of nymphs by the sum of the empty eggs plus the remaining full eggs. Good viability should be in the 75% to 90% hatched eggs range.</li>
</ol>
4. Scale Resistance Screening of Large Mature Beech Trees in the Field
<ol>
	<li>For a quantitative test, count out 500 eggs using a dissecting microscope and using a small spatula gently sprinkle them across the center of a predampened, open-cell 10 x 15 x 1.3 cm rectangle of polyethylene foam. To dampen foam, wet it then squeeze out as much water as possible. For a qualitative test, 500 eggs can be counted out and placed in a small glass vial and a &#8220;fill&#8221; line drawn that can be used to measure additional batches of approximately 500 eggs.</li>
	<li>Place the foam pad onto the test tree with the egg side facing against the bark. Hold the pad in place with rope, string, twine, or plastic coated hardware wire. Plastic or metal based material should be used rather than natural fiber materials which are more readily scavenged by wildlife.</li>
	<li>Line the top and sides of a precut 23 x 30 cm piece of vapor permeable waterproof house wrap with acetate based silicone adhesive and place it over the foam test pad. Press the edges of the house wrap to the tree to create a waterproof seal. Place nylon twine or plastic coated hardware wire around the tree and house wrap, to hold it in place while the adhesive sets (Figure 5).</li>
	<li>Place a minimum of two test pads on each test tree, preferably on opposite sides of the bole. At each site, place test pads on at least 2&#160;susceptible trees (with obvious natural scale infestation) as a control. Prior to placing the test pads on control trees, remove any naturally occurring scale insects or eggs using a firm bristled brush. 
	Note: Foam pads with eggs can also be placed on trees for the purpose of rearing scale eggs, which can be particularly helpful in areas where the infestation level is low.</li>
</ol>
5. Scale Resistance Screening of Potted Seedlings or Grafts
<ol>
	<li>For testing, select potted trees with a minimum diameter of 1 cm (caliper 5 cm above soil line) that are tall enough to have at least 2&#160;separate test pads placed on them. Prune small side branches when necessary to make room for the test pads.</li>
	<li>Use a dissecting microscope to count out 150 eggs and scatter them over a precut and dampened 2.5 x 7.6 x 1.3 cm open-cell polyethylene foam pad.</li>
	<li>Affix the foam pad to seedling with the egg side against the bark, using plastic-coated wire. Wrap a small square of house wrap around the seedling just above the foam and seal it with acetate-based silicone (see Figure 6A).</li>
	<li>Include known susceptible seedling families or grafts as controls.</li>
</ol>
6. Data Collection
Note: Approximately 52 to 57 weeks after placing the foam pads and eggs on the test trees, data can be collected. It is important that this is not done until after adults have begun to lay eggs so that their ability to reproduce can be determined. On some resistant trees it is not unusual to see a small number of adults establish but with no reproduction occurring.
<ol>
	<li>Carefully remove the foam pad and count the number of adult scale insects established on the bark using a hand lens or magnifying glass (10X).</li>
	<li>When the foam pad is removed, it is not uncommon for some adults and most egg clusters to be pulled off of the tree with the foam (see Figure 7). Using a dissecting microscope, count the egg clusters and adults that have remained attached to the foam pad.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Houston, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+technique+to+artificially+infest+beech+bark+with+the+scale,+Cryptococcus+fagisuga+(Lindinger).">A technique to artificially infest beech bark with the scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga (Lindinger).</a> U.S. Forest Service. , (1982).</li><li>Houston, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=American+beech+resistance+to+Cryptococcus+fagisuga.">American beech resistance to Cryptococcus fagisuga.</a> Proceeding, IUFRO beech bark disease working party conference. , 38-42 (1983).</li><li>Ehrlich, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+beech+bark+disease:+a+nectria+disease+of+Fagus,+following+Cryptococcus+fagi.">The beech bark disease: a nectria disease of Fagus, following Cryptococcus fagi.</a> 10, 593-692 (1934).</li><li>Papaik, M. J., Canham, C. D., Latty, E. F., Woods, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+an+introduced+pathogen+on+resistance+to+natural+disturbance:+beech+bark+disease+and+withdrow.">Effects of an introduced pathogen on resistance to natural disturbance: beech bark disease and withdrow.</a> 35, 1832-1843 (2005).</li><li>Miller-Weeks, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+status+of+beech+bark+disease+in+New+England+and+New+York.">Current status of beech bark disease in New England and New York.</a> Proceeding, IUFRO beech bark disease working party conference. , 21-23 (1983).</li><li>Houston, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beech+bark+disease:+The+aftermath+forests+are+structured+for+a+new+outbreak.">Beech bark disease: The aftermath forests are structured for a new outbreak.</a> J. For. 73, 660-663 (1975).</li><li>Twery, M. J., Patterson, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variations+in+beech+bark+disease+and+its+effects+on+species+composition+and+structure+of+northern+hardwood+stands+in+central+New.">Variations in beech bark disease and its effects on species composition and structure of northern hardwood stands in central New.</a> 14, 565-574 (1984).</li><li>Jakubus, W. J., McLaughlin, C. R., Jensen, P. G., McNulty, S. A., Evans, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alternate+year+beechnut+production+and+its+influence+on+bear+and+marten+populations.">Alternate year beechnut production and its influence on bear and marten populations.</a> Beech Bark Disease: Proceedings of the Beech Bark Disease Symposium. , 79-87 (2005).</li><li>Koch, J. L., Carey, D. W., Mason, M. E., Nelson, C. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+beech+scale+resistance+in+full-+and+half-sib+families.">Assessment of beech scale resistance in full- and half-sib families.</a> Can. J. For. Res. 40, 265-272 (2010).</li><li>Koch, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beech+bark+disease:+The+oldest+&#8220;new&#8221;+threat+to+American+beech+in+the+United+States.">Beech bark disease: The oldest &#8220;new&#8221; threat to American beech in the United States.</a> Outlooks Pest Manag. 21, 64-68 (2010).</li><li>Koch, J. L., Mason, M. E., Carey, D. W., Palmieri, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Screening+for+resistance+to+beech+bark+disease:+improvements+and+results+from+seedlings+and+grafted+field+selections.">Screening for resistance to beech bark disease: improvements and results from seedlings and grafted field selections.</a> Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Genetics of Host-Parasite Interactions in Forestry. , (2012).</li><li>Leak, W. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fifty+year+impacts+of+the+beech+bark+disease+in+the+Bartlett+Experimental+Forest,+New+Hampshire.">Fifty year impacts of the beech bark disease in the Bartlett Experimental Forest, New Hampshire.</a> Northern J. Appl. For. 23, 141-143 (2006).</li><li>Koch, J. L., Carey, D. W., Yaussy, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Controlled+cross-pollinations+with+American+beech+trees+that+are+resistant+to+beech+bark+disease.">Controlled cross-pollinations with American beech trees that are resistant to beech bark disease.</a> Proceedings of the 14th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. , 358-364 (2004).</li><li>Carey, D. W., Mason, M. E., Bloese, P., Koch, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hot+callusing+for+propagation+of+American+beech+by+grafting.">Hot callusing for propagation of American beech by grafting.</a> HortSci. 48, 620-624 (2013).</li><li>Koch, J. L., Carey, W. W., Evans, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+resistance+of+American+beech+to+beech+bark+disease:+knowledge+through+2004.">The genetics of resistance of American beech to beech bark disease: knowledge through 2004.</a> Beech Bark Disease: Proceedings of the Beech Bark Disease Symposium. , 98-105 (2005).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The critical steps required for success of this assay include performing a viability test on the eggs and the use of susceptible controls at each site tested, and with potted materials.&#160;It is also important to use more than one test pad per tree or seedling.&#160;We have found that both in the field and in more controlled tests on potted plants, a frequent source of error can be pad failure.&#160;For example, in the field, even with our modification of covering the test pad with house wrap to prevent excess moisture...

Beech bark disease (BBD) has had a detrimental impact on American beech in North America since the introduction of the invasive beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia in the late 1890s3.&#160;This insect-disease complex is initiated when the beech scale insect inserts its feeding stylet into the bark creating small fissures that provide entryway for infection by one of the Neonectria species of fungus (Neonectria ditissima or Neonectria faginata).&#160;As the fungal mycelia grow, large areas of tissue may die, eventually completely girdling the tree.&#160;The damage from the disease weakens the tree, making it prone to snapping in high winds4.&#160;Mortality levels in the first wave of the disease have been reported to be as high as 50%5.&#160;Surviving trees are often severely deformed as cankers form reducing value of the tree as a wood product.&#160;Such trees have a propensity for root-sprouting which leads to the formation of &#8220;beech thickets&#8221; that prevent other more desirable species from establishing,&#160;reducing&#160;the economic and ecological value of the stand6.&#160;Although beech bark disease is not likely to lead to extinction of the American beech, it alters stand composition and health leading to a decrease in food and habitat for wildlife7,8.

In stands affected by BBD for many years, trees that remain free of any symptoms of the disease have been reported.&#160;Artificial inoculation trials have shown that these trees are resistant to the scale insect2.&#160;Without scale infestation, there is little opportunity for Neonectria infection, minimizing the impact of the fungus.&#160;Large scale mortality in American beech due to Neonectria infection in the absence of prior scale infestation has never been reported, so resistance to the beech scale insect results in resistance to BBD.&#160;

Recent research on management of BBD has focused on the identification, propagation, breeding, and retention of American beech trees with resistance to the beech scale insect.&#160;Genetic studies have shown that resistance to the scale insect is heritable and careful selection and breeding of resistant trees can result in significant improvement in a single generation9.&#160;This finding has fueled efforts by state and national forest managers in the United States to establish regional seed orchards of resistant American beech to provide a source of genetically diverse BBD-resistant seed for restoration plantings10,11. Research has also indicated that silvicultural manipulation of stand genetics by the removal of susceptible trees and retention of resistant trees can result in stand improvement9,12.&#160;

Management of BBD through tree improvement activities or through carrying out silvicultural prescriptions requires the ability to select for and distinguish between beech scale-resistant and susceptible trees.&#160;The methods presented here have been adapted from a method first introduced by Dave Houston to artificially inoculate seedlings with beech scale eggs1.&#160;The method can be used as a screening tool to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with resistance or to distinguish between resistant and susceptible potted seedlings or grafted ramets in genetic studies.&#160;Alternatively, it can be used for screening mature trees in the field to identify resistant trees for seed orchard development, or retention in the field.&#160;Susceptible trees can be identified and removed to minimize disease impacts.&#160;

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a technique to screen american beech for resistance to the beech scale insect (cryptococcus fagisuga lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The disease is initiated by feeding activities of the invasive beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, which creates entry points for infection by one of the Neonectria species of fungus.&#160;Without scale infestation, there is little opportunity for fungal infection. Using scale eggs to artificially infest healthy trees in heavily BBD impacted stands demonstrated that these trees were resistant to the scale insect portion of the disease complex1.&#160;Here we present a protocol that we have developed, based on the artificial infestation technique by Houston2, which can be used to screen for scale-resistant trees in the field and in smaller potted seedlings and grafts.&#160;The identification of scale-resistant trees is an important component of management of BBD through tree improvement programs and silvicultural manipulation.

Figure 6 shows a resistant seedling (C) and two susceptible seedlings (D, E) exhibiting different degrees of susceptibility. An example of what a susceptible mature tree looks like 57 weeks after the artificial infestation test was set up is shown in Figure 5B. When the foam is peeled away from the tree, it is not uncommon for scale insects and their egg clusters to remain stuck to the foam as shown in Figure 7, which is...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. at JoVE.com

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.

Beech bark disease is initiated by feeding activities of the beech scale insect that create fungal entry points in the bark.&#160;Trees that are resistant to the scale insect are also disease resistant.&#160;Here we present the protocol we have developed to screen individual beech trees for beech scale resistance.

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The ...

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9.5K Views.  US Forest Service. Beech bark disease is initiated by feeding activities of the beech scale insect that create fungal entry points in the bark. Trees that are resistant to the scale insect are also disease resistant. Here we present the protocol we have developed to screen individual beech trees for beech scale resistance.

Video: A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.

A Noninvasive Method For In situ Determination of Mating Success in Female American Lobsters (Homarus americanus)

Despite being one of the most productive fisheries in the Northwest Atlantic, much remains unknown about the natural reproductive dynamics of American lobsters. Recent work in exploited crustacean populations (crabs and lobsters) suggests that there are circumstances where mature females are unable to achieve their full reproductive potential due to sperm limitation. To examine this possibility in different regions of the American lobster fishery, a reliable and noninvasive method was developed for sampling large numbers of female lobsters at sea. This method involves inserting a blunt-tipped needle into the female&#39;s seminal receptacle to determine the presence or absence of a sperm plug and to withdraw a sample that can be examined for the presence of sperm. A series of control studies were conducted at the dock and in the laboratory to test the reliability of this technique. These efforts entailed sampling 294 female lobsters to confirm that the presence of a sperm plug was a reliable indicator of sperm within the receptacle and thus, mating. This paper details the methodology and the results obtained from a subset of the total females sampled. Of the 230 female lobsters sampled from George&#39;s Bank and Cape Ann, MA (size range = 71-145 mm in carapace length), 90.3% were positive for sperm. Potential explanations for the absence of sperm in some females include: immaturity (lack of physiological maturity), breakdown of the sperm plug after being used to fertilize a clutch of eggs, and lack of mating activity. The surveys indicate that this technique for examining the mating success of female lobsters is a reliable proxy that can be used in the field to document reproductive activity in natural populations.

A Noninvasive Method For In situ Determination of Mating Success in Female American Lobsters Homarus americanus

Fishery-induced changes to exploited crustacean fisheries, such as the American lobster fishery, could potentially influence their reproductive dynamics, leading to a reduction in mating success. This study&#39;s goal was to develop a noninvasive method for ascertaining the mating success of female lobsters that may be physiologically or functionally mature.

Despite being one of the most productive fisheries in the Northwest Atlantic, much remains unknown about the natural reproductive dynamics of American ...

Video Tracking Protocol to Screen Deterrent Chemistries for Honey Bees

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is an economically and agriculturally important pollinator that generates billions of dollars annually. Honey bee colony numbers have been declining in the United States and many European countries since 1947. A number of factors play a role in this decline, including the unintentional exposure of honey bees to pesticides. The development of new methods and regulations are warranted to reduce pesticide exposures to these pollinators. One approach is the use of repellent chemistries that deter honey bees from a recently pesticide-treated crop. Here, we describe a protocol to discern the deterrence of honey bees exposed to select repellent chemistries. Honey bee foragers are collected and starved overnight in an incubator 15 h prior to testing. Individual honey bees are placed into Petri dishes that have either a sugar-agarose cube (control treatment) or sugar-agarose-compound cube (repellent treatment) placed into the middle of the dish. The Petri dish serves as the arena that is placed under a camera in a light box to record the honey bee locomotor activities using video tracking software. A total of 8 control and 8 repellent treatments were analyzed for a 10 min period with each treatment was duplicated with new honey bees. Here, we demonstrate that honey bees are deterred from the sugar-agarose cubes with a compound treatment whereas honey bees are attracted to the sugar-agarose cubes without an added compound.

The loss of honey bee colonies presents a challenge to crop pollination services. Current pollinator protection practices warrant an alternative approach to minimize the contact of honey bees to harmful pesticides using repellent chemistries. Here, we provide detailed methods for a visual tracking protocol to screen deterrents for bees.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is an economically and agriculturally important pollinator that generates billions of dollars annually. Honey ...

Lab-Scale Model to Evaluate Odor and Gas Concentrations Emitted by Deep Bedded Pack Manure

A lab-scaled simulated bedded pack model was developed to study air quality and nutrient composition of deep-bedded packs used in cattle mono-slope facilities. This protocol has been used to effectively evaluate many different bedding materials, environmental variables (temperature, humidity), and potential mitigation treatments that can improve air quality in commercial deep-bedded mono-slope facilities. The model is dynamic and allows researchers to easily collect many chemical and physical measurements from the bedded pack. Weekly measurements, collected over the course of six to seven weeks, allows sufficient time to see changes in air quality measurements over time as the bedded pack matures. The data collected from the simulated bedded packs is within the range of concentrations previously measured in commercial deep-bedded mono-slope facilities. Past studies have demonstrated that 8 - 10 experimental units per treatment are sufficient to detect statistical differences among the simulated bedded packs. The bedded packs are easy to maintain, requiring less than 10 minutes of labor per bedded packs per week to add urine, feces, and bedding. Sample collection using the gas sampling system requires 20 - 30 minutes per bedded pack, depending on the measurements that are being collected. The use of lab-scaled bedded packs allows the researcher to control variables such as temperature, humidity, and bedding source that are difficult or impossible to control in a research or commercial facility. While not a perfect simulation of &#34;real-world&#34; conditions, the simulated bedded packs serve as a good model for researchers to use to examine treatment differences among bedded packs. Several lab-scale studies can be conducted to eliminate possible treatments before trying them in a research or commercial-sized facility.

A protocol has been developed to measure gases, odors, and nutrient composition in lab-scaled bedded manure packs, which can be used to study ways to improve air quality in commercial cattle facilities using deep-bedded manure packs.

A lab-scaled simulated bedded pack model was developed to study air quality and nutrient composition of deep-bedded packs used in cattle mono-slope ...

Double-stranded RNA Oral Delivery Methods to Induce RNA Interference in Phloem and Plant-sap-feeding Hemipteran Insects

Phloem and plant sap feeding insects invade the integrity of crops and fruits to retrieve nutrients, in the process damaging food crops. Hemipteran insects account for a number of economically substantial pests of plants that cause damage to crops by feeding on phloem sap. The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) and the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) are hemipteran insect pests introduced in North America, where they are an invasive agricultural pest of high-value specialty, row, and staple crops and citrus fruits, as well as a nuisance pest when they aggregate indoors. Insecticide resistance in many species has led to the development of alternate methods of pest management strategies. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) is a gene silencing mechanism for functional genomic studies that has potential applications as a tool for the management of insect pests. Exogenously synthesized dsRNA or small interfering RNA (siRNA) can trigger highly efficient gene silencing through the degradation of endogenous RNA, which is homologous to that presented. Effective and environmental use of RNAi as molecular biopesticides for biocontrol of hemipteran insects requires the in vivo delivery of dsRNAs through feeding. Here we demonstrate methods for delivery of dsRNA to insects: loading of dsRNA into green beans by immersion, and absorbing of gene-specific dsRNA with oral delivery through ingestion. We have also outlined non-transgenic plant delivery approaches using foliar sprays, root drench, trunk injections as well as clay granules, all of which may be essential for sustained release of dsRNA. Efficient delivery by orally ingested dsRNA was confirmed as an effective dosage to induce a significant decrease in expression of targeted genes, such as juvenile hormone acid O-methyltransferase (JHAMT) and vitellogenin (Vg). These innovative methods represent strategies for delivery of dsRNA to use in crop protection and overcome environmental challenges for pest management.

This article demonstrates novel techniques developed for oral delivery of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) through the vascular tissues of plants for RNA interference (RNAi) in phloem sap feeding insects.

Phloem and plant sap feeding insects invade the integrity of crops and fruits to retrieve nutrients, in the process damaging food crops. Hemipteran ...

The Barnacle Balanus improvisus as a Marine Model - Culturing and Gene Expression

Barnacles are marine crustaceans with a sessile adult and free-swimming, planktonic larvae. The barnacle Balanus (Amphibalanus) improvisus is particularly relevant as a model for the studies of osmoregulatory mechanisms because of its extreme tolerance to low salinity. It is also widely used as a model of settling biology, in particular in relation to antifouling research. However, natural seasonal spawning yields an unpredictable supply of cyprid larvae for studies. A protocol for the all-year-round culturing of B. improvisus has been developed and a detailed description of all steps in the production line is outlined (i.e., the establishment of adult cultures on panels, the collection and rearing of barnacle larvae, and the administration of feed for adults and larvae). The description also provides guidance on troubleshooting and discusses critical parameters (e.g., the removal of contamination, the production of high-quality feed, the manpower needed, and the importance of high-quality seawater). Each batch from the culturing system maximally yields roughly 12,000 nauplii and can deliver four batches in a week, so up to almost 50,000 larvae per week can be produced. The method used to culture B. improvisus is, probably, to a large extent also applicable to other marine invertebrates with free-swimminglarvae. Protocols are presented for the dissection of various tissues from adults as well as the production of high-quality RNA for studies on gene expression. It is also described how cultured adults and reared cyprids can be utilized in a wide array of experimental designs for examining gene expression in relation to external factors. The use of cultured barnacles in gene expression is illustrated with studies of possible osmoregulatory roles of Na+/K+ ATPase and aquaporins.

The Barnacle Balanus improvisus as a Marine Model - Culturing and Gene Expression

The barnacle Balanus (Amphibalanus) improvisus is a model for studying osmoregulation and antifouling. However, natural seasonal spawning yields an unpredictable supply of cyprid larvae. Here, a protocol for the all-year-round culturing of B. improvisus is described, including the production of larvae. The use of cultured barnacles in gene expression studies is illustrated.

Barnacles are marine crustaceans with a sessile adult and free-swimming, planktonic larvae. The barnacle Balanus (Amphibalanus) improvisus is particularly ...

Experimental Protocol for Examining Behavioral Response Profiles in Larval Fish: Application to the Neuro-stimulant Caffeine

Fish models and behaviors are increasingly used in the biomedical sciences; however, fish have long been the subject of ecological, physiological and toxicological studies. Using automated digital tracking platforms, recent efforts in neuropharmacology are leveraging larval fish locomotor behaviors to identify potential therapeutic targets for novel small molecules. Similar to these efforts, research in the environmental sciences and comparative pharmacology and toxicology is examining various behaviors of fish models as diagnostic tools in tiered evaluation of contaminants and real-time monitoring of surface waters for contaminant threats. Whereas the zebrafish is a popular larval fish model in the biomedical sciences, the fathead minnow is a common larval fish model in ecotoxicology. Unfortunately, fathead minnow larvae have received considerably less attention in behavioral studies. Here, we develop and demonstrate a behavioral profile protocol using caffeine as a model neurostimulant. Though photomotor responses of fathead minnows were occasionally affected by caffeine, zebrafish&#160;were markedly more sensitive for photomotor and locomotor endpoints, which responded at environmentally relevant levels. Future studies are needed to understand comparative behavioral sensitivity differences among fish with age and time of day, and to determine whether similar behavioral effects would occur in nature and be indicative of adverse outcomes at the individual or population levels of biological organization.

Here, we present a protocol to examine larval zebrafish and fathead minnow locomotor activities and photomotor responses (PMR) using an automated tracking software. When incorporated in common toxicology bioassays, analyses of these behaviors provide a diagnostic tool to examine chemical bioactivity. This protocol is described using caffeine, a model neurostimulant.

Fish models and behaviors are increasingly used in the biomedical sciences; however, fish have long been the subject of ecological, physiological and ...

A Precise and Autonomous System for the Detection of Insect Emergence Patterns

Existing systems to measure insect emergence patterns have limitations; they are only partially automated and are limited in the maximum number of emerging insects they can detect. In order to obtain precise measurement of insect emergence, it is necessary for systems to be semi-automated and able to measure large numbers of emerging insects. We addressed these issues by designing and building a system that is automated and can measure emergence of up to 1200 insects. We modified the existing &#34;falling-ball&#34; system using Arduino microcontrollers to automate data collection and expand the sample size through multiple data channels. Multiple data channels enable the user to not only increase their sample size, but also allows for multiple treatments to be run simultaneously in a single experiment. Furthermore, we created an R script to automatically visualize the data as a bubble plot, while also calculating the median day and time of emergence. The current system was designed using 3D printing so the user can modify the system to be adjusted for different species of insects. The goal of this protocol is to investigate important questions in chronobiology and stress physiology, using this precise and automated system to measure insect emergence patterns.

Measurement of insect emergence patterns requires precision. Existing systems are only semi-automated and sample size is limited. We addressed these issues by designing a system using microcontrollers to precisely measure the time of emergence of large numbers of emerging insects.

Existing systems to measure insect emergence patterns have limitations; they are only partially automated and are limited in the maximum number of ...

Composition and Distribution Analysis of Bioaerosols Under Different Environmental Conditions

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, we described a protocol for multiple analyses of the biological compositions in environmental PM. Five experiments are presented: (1) PM number monitoring by using a laser particle counter; (2) PM collection by using a cyclonic aerosol sampler; (3) PM collection by using a high-volume air sampler with filters; (4) culturable microbes collection by the Andersen six-stage sampler; and (5) detection of biological composition of environmental PM by bacterial 16SrDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing. We selected hazy days and a livestock farm as two typical examples of the application in this protocol. In this study, these two sampling methods, cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler, showed different sampling efficiency. The cyclonic aerosol sampler performed much better in terms of collecting bacteria, while these two methods showed the same efficiency in collecting fungi. Filter samplers can work under low temperature conditions while cyclonic aerosol samplers have a sampling limitation for temperature. A solid impacting sampler, such as an Andersen six-stage sampler, can be used to sample bioaerosols directly into the culture medium, which increases the survival rate of culturable microorganisms. However, this method mainly relies on culture while more than 99% of microbes cannot be cultured. DNA extracted from the culturable bacteria collected by the Andersen six-stage sampler and samples collected by cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler were detected by bacterial 16S rDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing.All the methods above may have wide application in many fields of study, such as environmental monitoring and airborne pathogen detection. From these results, we can conclude that these methods can be used under different conditions and may help other researchers further explore the health impacts of environmental bioaerosols.

Understanding the biological composition of environmental particulate matter is important for the study of its significant impacts on human health and disease spread. Here, we used three types of bioaerosol sampling methods and a biological analysis of airborne microbes to better explore airborne microbial communities under different environmental conditions.

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, ...

Detached Leaf Assays to Simplify Gene Expression Studies in Potato During Infestation by Chewing Insect Manduca sexta

The multitrophic nature of gene expression studies of insect herbivory demands large numbers of biological replicates, creating the need for simpler, more streamlined herbivory protocols. Perturbations of chewing insects are usually studied in whole plant systems. While this whole organism strategy is popular, it is not necessary if similar observations can be replicated in a single detached leaf. The assumption is that basic elements required for signal transduction are present within the leaf itself. In the case of early events in signal transduction, cells need only to receive the signal from the perturbation and transmit that signal to neighboring cells which are assayed for gene expression.
The proposed method simply changes the timing of the detachment. In whole plant experiments, larvae are confined to a single leaf which is eventually detached from the plant and assayed for gene expression. If the order of excision is reversed, from last in whole plant studies, to first in the detached study, the feeding experiment is simplified.
Solanum tuberosum var. Kennebec is propagated by nodal transfer in a simple tissue culture medium and transferred to soil for further growth if desired. Leaves are excised from the parent plant and relocated to Petri dishes where the feeding assay is conducted with the larval stages of M. sexta. Damaged leaf tissue is assayed for the expression of relatively early events in signal transduction. Gene expression analysis identified infestation-specific Cys2-His2 (C2H2) transcription factors, confirming the success of using detached leaves in early response studies. The method is easier to perform than whole plant infestations and uses less space.

The presented method creates natural herbivore damaged plant tissue through the application of Manduca sexta larvae to detached leaves of potato. The plant tissue is assayed for expression of six transcription factor homologs involved in early responses to insect herbivory.

The multitrophic nature of gene expression studies of insect herbivory demands large numbers of biological replicates, creating the need for simpler, more ...

Implantation of a New Micro Acoustic Tag in Juvenile Pacific Lamprey and American Eel

Juvenile Pacific Lamprey and American eels were used for laboratory evaluations to determine potential effects from tag implantation. Telemetry technology has been identified as a way to obtain more detailed information on movement and behavior across a broader spatial scale than is possible with other known technology. The purpose of this method is to provide a detailed step by step instruction on tag implantation for both lampreys and eel. For laboratory studies using actively migrating juvenile Pacific Lamprey (120-160 mm), we determined that the presence of the tag did not alter the swimming ability between tagged and untagged Individuals or have any significant tag loss (&lt;3%). Similar results were determined during laboratory testing of Yellow phase American Eels (113-175 mm). No mortality occurred during a 38-day holding period and there was minimal tag loss (3.8%). The presence of the tag did not have any significant effect on the swimming ability or survival of tagged eels compared to untagged controls and there was minimal tag loss.

This article illustrates the procedure for implanting a micro acoustic tag in juvenile Pacific Lamprey and American Eel. Our application is based on laboratory trials, which indicate that acoustic tags can be successfully implanted with no apparent effects on swimming ability or survival and minimal tag loss.

Juvenile Pacific Lamprey and American eels were used for laboratory evaluations to determine potential effects from tag implantation. Telemetry technology ...