This work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (AF: 379-8/1; 379-10/1, 379-11/1 and by DFG-Exc-257, UL: 423/1-1), the Bundesministerium f&#252;r Bildung und Forschung (AF: FKZ0315673A and 01GY1144; AF and MM: 01EO0801), the German Academic Exchange Service (AF: DAAD-54391829), Go8 Australia - Germany Joint Research Cooperation Scheme (DC: 2011001430), the Else-Kr&#246;ner Fresenius Stiftung (AF: 2009-141; RL: 2011-119) and the Australian Research Council (DC: ARC FT100100976; MM: ARC FT120100608). We thank Kate Riggall for editorial assistance.

1. Contraindications and Special Considerations
<ol>
	<li>Thoroughly screen participants for MRI contraindications (e.g.&#160;pacemakers, claustrophobia, etc.)&#160; and exclude if necessary. Acquire standard questionnaires at clinical or research institutions that operate MRI scanners. Always obey standard safety procedures when entering the scanner room.</li>
	<li>Thoroughly screen participants for contraindications for tDCS. These may overlap with contraindications for MRI. See Villamar et al.20 for an example.</li>
	<li>Consult with the operating facility regarding local safety and ethics regulations and obtain necessary permissions. Test for potential imaging artifacts induced by the stimulation current or tDCS equipment prior to commencement of the actual experiment (e.g.&#160;by testing the impact of tDCS on signal-to-noise ratio17,18).</li>
</ol>
2. fMRI Setup, Experimental Design, and Materials
Note: The use of tDCS inside an MRI scanner requires special equipment. In particular, specific MRI-compatible cables, filter boxes, electrodes and straps to attach electrodes to subjects&#8217; head are required. Figure 2 illustrates (A) standard tDCS equipment and (B) components for use with MRI. The latter components are necessary to prevent the possibility of heating under the electrodes due to radio-frequency pulses emitted during MRI. In addition, high-frequency imaging artifacts may be induced by the tDCS device. Both can be prevented by using filter boxes positioned outside and inside of the scanner room, cables equipped with resistors and dedicated MRI-compatible conductive rubber electrodes.
<ol>
	<li>Perform general experimental set-up and sequences for the fMRI experiment. Both depend on the aims of the study.&#160;Note: the protocol below is specific to this experiment, but can be revised to apply to a number of different experimental situations.</li>
	<li>Use a desktop computer with stimulus presentation software installed for a language task that involves visual presentation of semantic categories inside the scanner. Present these stimuli on a screen inside of the scanner via a projector connected to the computer and a system of mirrors.</li>
	<li>Use an MRI-compatible microphone for transmission of overt verbal responses. Acquire two functional sequences during tDCS: a five-minute task-absent RS-sequence and an overt semantic word-generation task. Note: additional details of the experimental set-up, fMRI sequences and stimuli have previously been described in detail14,15 and Figure 1 illustrates the experiment.</li>
	<li>To set up the tDCS device, program the device to deliver a constant direct current of 1 mA for 20 min to cover the entire duration of the two functional scans, including short breaks and time for instructions in between scans14,15. Ensure sure that the stimulator is sufficiently charged; otherwise it may shut down during the experiment.</li>
	<li>Make sure that all necessary materials are available (Figure 2).</li>
</ol>
3. tDCS Setup Outside and Inside of the Scanner (See Figure 3 for a Schematic Overview)
<ol>
	<li>Place the outer filter box close to the radio-frequency filter (RF) tube (i.e.&#160;the penetration point in the radio frequency shield of the MRI scanner that can be used to insert cables from outside of the scanner). Connect stimulator with the outer box using stimulator cable. Inner and outer filter box must not be mixed up. Note: Figure 4A illustrates the tDCS set-up outside of the scanner. The outer box is clearly marked in Figure 4B.</li>
	<li>Measure cable length required to connect inner with outer box using box cable (see next point regarding positioning of cable in scanner room). Insert box cable into RF tube from the outside of the scanner and connect with outer filter box (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Place inner filter box inside the rear end of the scanner bore (Figure 5); use adhesive tape to keep it in place. Connect box cable with inner filter box and avoid loops in any cables as these may induce RF heating. Note: The cable should be aligned with the walls of the scanner room and attached with adhesive tape (Figure 3).</li>
</ol>
4. Participant Preparation and Positioning of Participant in Scanner
<ol>
	<li>As with conventional tDCS set-ups, inspect the skin of the participant for any pre-existing lesions, move hair away, clean skin with alcohol to remove hairspray, body lotion, etc. to improve skin conductivity underneath the electrodes12,21.</li>
	<li>Soak sponge pockets with saline solution and insert MRI-compatible electrodes into pockets (see DaSilva21 for general considerations of participant preparation and electrode positioning).</li>
	<li>Mark electrode positions on subjects&#8217; heads using a pen that leaves no ferromagnetic traces (e.g. don&#8217;t use eyeliner). Determine target position for anode using 10-20 EEG system (here: left IFG, 5 x 7 cm2)14,15. To do so, locate (a) the intersection of T3-F3 and F7-C3 and (b) the midpoint between F7-F3. The target position is at the center of a line connecting points (a) and (b). Place cathode (10 x 10 cm2) over right supraorbital position (for details of electrode placement see Meinzer et al.14,15). Attach electrodes to head using rubber band.</li>
	<li>Guide the participant behind the scanner and connect electrode cable with the inner filter box. Turn on stimulator and test impedance by pressing the upper right and lower left button of the stimulator simultaneously. If the impedance limits are reached, then the stimulator will stop automatically. If this occurs, check whether electrodes have contact with the scalp, clean skin again or apply more saline solution if sponges have become too dry, and then check if any cable is broken. Note: Impedance is typically higher compared to conventional set-ups because of additional cables and filter boxes between stimulator and electrodes.</li>
	<li>Guide participant into the scanner room (after a final safety check). Position the participant on the scanner gantry and make sure that electrodes are still in the correct position. Close the head coil. The electrode cable should be fed through the lower left part of the head coil (see Figure 6) or according to recommendations of the manufacturer.</li>
	<li>Move participant into scanner bore. Make sure that the cable does not catch on the gantry and break (see Figure 6 for a possible secure position of the cable during this stage). When the participant has reached the final position inside the scanner, reach for the electrode cable from the rear end of the scanner and connect it to the inner filter box. Hand over emergency button to participant and leave the scanner room.</li>
</ol>
5. Starting the Stimulation
<ol>
	<li>Use scanner intercom to inform the participant about the start of scanning session. Start the structural localizer scan (to determine head position of participant in scanner and allow for planning of subsequent functional and structural scans) using scanning console. Inspect localizer scan for high-frequency artifacts: Double-click on localizer scan after the end of the acquisition period and adjust contrast (for Siemens Trio by holding right mouse button and moving mouse to left and right; for examples see Figures 7A&#160;and 7B).</li>
	<li>Use scanner intercom to communicate to the subject that the stimulation will commence and that he/she might feel a tingling sensation on the scalp for a short time. Repeat instructions for first functional scan. In this example, instruct the participant to keep the eyes closed for the duration of the scan (5 min), move as little as possible and think of nothing in particular. Make sure that projector is turned off (screen inside the scanner bore is black) to avoid visual stimulation during RS-scan.</li>
	<li>Start stimulation manually approximately 1-2 min prior to the start of the first functional scan (RS-scan). Use scanner console to load RS-sequence. Double click on RS-sequence to open field-of-view (FOV), adjust position to cover the entire brain and align approximately with the anterior-posterior commissure. Start the first scan (using the START scan button).</li>
	<li>Monitor impedance throughout the experiment. Note: If the experiment is conducted in a double-blind mode (participant and researcher are blinded to the stimulation), a second researcher may be necessary to monitor the impedance.</li>
	<li>While the RS-sequence is running, load second functional imaging sequence (for subsequent language task) and adjust FOV, using scanner console as above, to reduce time required in between scans. After the end of the RS-sequence, turn on projector to allow for visual display of experimental stimuli during language task. Double click on presentation software icon and load language paradigm. Use scanner intercom to repeat instructions for task-related fMRI paradigm and commence with task14,15.</li>
	<li>After the end of the stimulation/fMRI experiment, continue with planned structural scans. Do not disconnect electrode cables until the end of the scanning session.</li>
	<li>At the end of the experiment, disconnect electrode cable from inner filter box before moving participant out of scanner bore. Remove participant from the scanner, detach head coil and ask the participant to sit up and remove electrodes carefully.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The combined application of tDCS with simultaneous fMRI has shown potential for elucidating the neural underpinnings of the immediate effects of the stimulation across the entire brain with high spatial resolution13-19. In the future, such studies may be complemented by combined EEG-tDCS studies, to exploit the superior temporal resolution of the latter technique. In addition, intrascanner stimulation allows verification of correct positioning of the electrodes on the scalp (e.g.&#160;using T-weighted...

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive method of brain stimulation in which cortical functioning is modulated by means of a weak electrical current (typically 1-2 mA) projected between two scalp-affixed electrodes. Physiologically, tDCS induces a polarity-dependent shift in neuronal resting membrane potential (RMP) within the targeted cortical region through the manipulation of sodium and calcium channels, thereby promoting changes in cortical excitability1. Specifically, anodal stimulation (atDCS) has been shown to increase cortical activity via depolarization of neuronal RMP while cathodal stimulation (ctDCS) reduces cortical excitability2. Compared to other types of brain stimulation (e.g.&#160;transcranial magnetic stimulation) safety has been well established and thus far no serious side effects have been reported even in vulnerable populations3,4. Also, at least for lower stimulation intensities (up to 1 mA), an effective placebo (&#8220;sham&#8221;) stimulation condition exists5, allowing effective blinding of participants and investigators to the stimulation conditions, rendering tDCS an attractive tool in experimental and clinical research settings.
Numerous studies so far have shown that these changes in cortical excitability may result in behavioral modulations. In the motor system, consistent polarity dependent effects have been reported1,6 for both atDCS and ctDCS. In cognitive studies, the majority of studies that employed atDCS to enhance cognitive functions reported beneficial effects on performance7, while ctDCS frequently did not result in impaired cognitive processing. The latter may be explained by the greater redundancy of neural processing resources underlying cognition6. The majority of tDCS studies have employed cross-over designs to study the immediate effects of the stimulation, which outlast the termination of the current only for short periods of time1. However, it has been suggested that repeated stimulation impacts on protein synthesis, i.e.&#160;the neural mechanism underlying skill acquisition8. Indeed, motor or cognitive training success may be enhanced when combined with repeated tDCS sessions and long-term stability of these improvements have been reported to last up to several months in healthy adults8-10. Such findings have also sparked an interest in the use of tDCS in clinical contexts and preliminary data suggests that it may also be useful as a primary or adjunct treatment approach in various clinical populations3. However, while a relatively large number of studies addressed neurophysiological effects of tDCS in the motor system, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of tDCS effects on cognitive brain functions in health and disease. A better understanding of the mode of action of tDCS is a necessary prerequisite for more targeted applications of tDCS in research and clinical settings.
This issue can be addressed by combining tDCS with functional brain imaging techniques like electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The majority of studies investigating the neural mechanisms underlying cognition and motor functions have chosen to employ fMRI11. In particular, fMRI is the most widely used brain imaging technique to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying cognition and motor functions11. Moreover, when combined with concurrent application of tDCS, fMRI allows examination of the neural mechanisms underlying behavioral tDCS effects with higher spatial resolution across the entire brain compared to EEG (for recent descriptions of combined tDCS-EEG see Schestatsky et al.12). The present manuscript describes the combined use of tDCS during simultaneous fMRI. This novel technique has successfully been used to study the neural mechanisms underlying tDCS-induced modulations of motor and cognitive functions13-19. In the future, this combined protocol will yield new insights into the mechanisms of tDCS action in health and disease. Understanding the impact of tDCS on large-scale neural networks as assessed with this technique may lay the groundwork for more targeted application of tDCS in research and clinical settings.
The manuscript will focus on differences between behavioral tDCS experiments and the combined use of tDCS during simultaneous fMRI, with a specific emphasis on hardware requirements, implementation of the technique, and safety considerations. As an example, a single session of tDCS administered to the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) during task-absent resting-state (RS) fMRI and during a language task14,15 will be described, though many other applications are possible16,19. Details of the experimental design, participant characteristics and fMRI data analysis procedures have been described in detail in the original publications14,15 and are beyond the scope of the present manuscript. Moreover, in these studies, an additional fMRI scan that involved sham tDCS was acquired and compared to the results of the atDCS session (see &#34;Representative results&#34; for details). This session was identical to the one described in the present manuscript, except that the stimulation was discontinued prior to the start of the scanning session (see Figure 1 for details). The present procedure has been successfully implemented at a 3-Tesla Siemens Trio MRI scanner at the Berlin Centre for Advanced Imaging (Charit&#233; University Medicine, Berlin, Germany), and should in principle be applicable to other scanners as well13.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="662">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">DC-Stimulator Plus</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">NeuroConn, Illmenau, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:133px;">21</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="126">
			<td height="126" style="height:126px;width:216px;">Hardware extension DC-Stimulator MR (2 MRI compatible rubber electrodes, electrode and box cable and inner filter box; outer filter box and stimulator cable)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">NeuroConn, Illmenau, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">2 sponge pads for rubber electrodes (7x5 and 10x10 ccm)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">NeuroConn, Illmenau, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Rubber head band</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NaCL solution</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Measurement tape</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td>To determine electrode position using the EEG 10-20 system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Pen</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
			<td style="width:133px;"></td>
			<td>Used during electrode positioning</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

transcranial direct current stimulation and simultaneous  functional magnetic resonance imaging

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that uses weak electrical currents administered to the scalp to manipulate cortical excitability and, consequently, behavior and brain function. In the last decade, numerous studies have addressed short-term and long-term effects of tDCS on different measures of behavioral performance during motor and cognitive tasks, both in healthy individuals and in a number of different patient populations. So far, however, little is known about the neural underpinnings of tDCS-action in humans with regard to large-scale brain networks. This issue can be addressed by combining tDCS with functional brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or electroencephalography (EEG).
In particular, fMRI is the most widely used brain imaging technique to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying cognition and motor functions. Application of tDCS during fMRI allows analysis of the neural mechanisms underlying behavioral tDCS effects with high spatial resolution across the entire brain. Recent studies using this technique identified stimulation induced changes in task-related functional brain activity at the stimulation site&#160;and also in more distant brain regions, which were associated with behavioral improvement. In addition, tDCS administered during resting-state fMRI allowed identification of widespread changes in whole brain functional connectivity.
Future studies using this combined protocol should yield new insights into the mechanisms of tDCS action in health and disease and new options for more targeted application of tDCS in research and clinical settings. The present manuscript describes this novel technique in a step-by-step fashion, with a focus on technical aspects of tDCS administered during fMRI.

Functional MRI is the most widely used functional imaging technique to address the underlying neural mechanisms of motor or cognitive functions. More recently, fMRI has also been used to evaluate tDCS effects on cortical activity and connectivity. However, most of these studies administered tDCS outside of the scanner and evaluated offline effects of the stimulation (i.e.&#160;administered tDCS prior to scanning22,23). Only a few studies so far have administered tDCS during simul...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Simultaneous  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging at JoVE.com

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Simultaneous  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique. It has successfully been used in basic research and clinical settings to modulate brain function in humans. This article describes the implementation of tDCS and simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to investigate the neural basis of tDCS effects.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that uses weak electrical currents administered to the scalp ...

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21.6K Views.  University of Queensland. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique. It has successfully been used in basic research and clinical settings to modulate brain function in humans. This article describes the implementation of tDCS and simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to investigate the neural basis of tDCS effects.

Video: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Simultaneous  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and molecular approaches allow the investigation of either different stimuli on few neurons, or one stimulus in large parts of the brain, blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) allows combining both advantages, i.e. compare the neural activation induced by different stimuli in the entire brain at once. fMRI in songbirds is challenging because of the small size of their brains and because their bones and especially their skull comprise numerous air cavities, inducing important susceptibility artifacts. Gradient-echo (GE) BOLD fMRI has been successfully applied to songbirds 1-5 (for a review, see 6). These studies focused on the primary and secondary auditory brain areas, which are regions free of susceptibility artifacts. However, because processes of interest may occur beyond these regions, whole brain BOLD fMRI is required using an MRI sequence less susceptible to these artifacts. This can be achieved by using spin-echo (SE) BOLD fMRI 7,8 . In this article, we describe how to use this technique in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), which are small songbirds with a bodyweight of 15-25 g extensively studied in behavioral neurosciences of birdsong. The main topic of fMRI studies on songbirds is song perception and song learning. The auditory nature of the stimuli combined with the weak BOLD sensitivity of SE (compared to GE) based fMRI sequences makes the implementation of this technique very challenging.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

This article shows an optimized procedure for imaging of the neural substrates of auditory stimulation in the songbird brain using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). It describes the preparation of the sound stimuli, the positioning of the subject and the acquisition and subsequent analysis of the fMRI data.

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and ...

Best Current Practice for Obtaining High Quality EEG Data During Simultaneous fMRI

Simultaneous EEG-fMRI allows the excellent temporal resolution of EEG to be combined with the high spatial accuracy of fMRI. The data from these two modalities can be combined in a number of ways, but all rely on the acquisition of high quality EEG and fMRI data. EEG data acquired during simultaneous fMRI are affected by several artifacts, including the gradient artefact (due to the changing magnetic field gradients required for fMRI), the pulse artefact (linked to the cardiac cycle) and movement artifacts (resulting from movements in the strong magnetic field of the scanner, and muscle activity). Post-processing methods for successfully correcting the gradient and pulse artifacts require a number of criteria to be satisfied during data acquisition. Minimizing head motion during EEG-fMRI is also imperative for limiting the generation of artifacts.
Interactions between the radio frequency (RF) pulses required for MRI and the EEG hardware may occur and can cause heating. This is only a significant risk if safety guidelines are not satisfied. Hardware design and set-up, as well as careful selection of which MR sequences are run with the EEG hardware present must therefore be considered.
The above issues highlight the importance of the choice of the experimental protocol employed when performing a simultaneous EEG-fMRI experiment. Based on previous research we describe an optimal experimental set-up. This provides high quality EEG data during simultaneous fMRI when using commercial EEG and fMRI systems, with safety risks to the subject minimized. We demonstrate this set-up in an EEG-fMRI experiment using a simple visual stimulus. However, much more complex stimuli can be used. Here we show the EEG-fMRI set-up using a Brain Products GmbH (Gilching, Germany) MRplus, 32 channel EEG system in conjunction with a Philips Achieva (Best, Netherlands) 3T MR scanner, although many of the techniques are transferable to other systems.

Simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) and functional Magnetic Resonance imaging (fMRI) is a powerful neuroimaging tool. However, the inside of an MRI scanner forms a difficult environment for EEG data recording and safety must be considered whenever operating EEG equipment inside a scanner. Here, we present an optimised EEG-fMRI data acquisition protocol.

Simultaneous  EEG-fMRI allows the excellent temporal resolution of EEG to be combined with the  high spatial accuracy of fMRI. The data  from these two ...

Simultaneous EEG Monitoring During Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that delivers weak electric currents through the scalp. This constant electric current induces shifts in neuronal membrane excitability, resulting in secondary changes in cortical activity. Although tDCS has most of its neuromodulatory effects on the underlying cortex, tDCS effects can also be observed in distant neural networks. Therefore, concomitant EEG monitoring of the effects of tDCS can provide valuable information on the mechanisms of tDCS. In addition, EEG findings can be an important surrogate marker for the effects of tDCS and thus can be used to optimize its parameters. This combined EEG-tDCS system can also be used for preventive treatment of neurological conditions characterized by abnormal peaks of cortical excitability, such as seizures. Such a system would be the basis of a non-invasive closed-loop device. In this article, we present a novel device that is capable of utilizing tDCS and EEG simultaneously. For that, we describe in a step-by-step fashion the main procedures of the application of this device using schematic figures, tables and video demonstrations. Additionally, we provide a literature review on clinical uses of tDCS and its cortical effects measured by EEG techniques.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that has shown initial therapeutic effects in several neurological conditions. The main mechanism underlying these therapeutic effects is the modulation of cortical excitability. Therefore, online monitoring of cortical excitability would help guide stimulation parameters and optimize its therapeutic effects. In the present article we review the use of a novel device that combines simultaneous tDCS and EEG monitoring in real time.

Transcranial  direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that delivers weak electric  currents through the scalp. This constant electric current ...

Stimulating the Lip Motor Cortex with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. Researchers have used single-pulse and repetitive TMS to stimulate the lip representation in the motor cortex. The excitability of the lip motor representation can be investigated by applying single TMS pulses over this cortical area and recording TMS-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) via electrodes attached to the lip muscles (electromyography; EMG). Larger MEPs reflect increased cortical excitability. Studies have shown that excitability increases during listening to speech as well as during&#160;viewing speech-related movements. TMS can be used also to disrupt the lip motor representation. A 15-min train of low-frequency sub-threshold repetitive stimulation has been shown to suppress motor excitability for a further 15-20 min. This TMS-induced disruption of the motor lip representation impairs subsequent performance in demanding speech perception tasks and modulates auditory-cortex responses to speech sounds. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that the motor cortex contributes to speech perception. This article describes how to localize the lip representation in the motor cortex and how to define the appropriate stimulation intensity for carrying out both single-pulse and repetitive TMS experiments.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception.&#160; This article describes how to record motor evoked potentials (MEPs) from the lip muscles and how to disrupt the motor lip representation using repetitive TMS.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. ...

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Investigating Causal Brain-behavioral Relationships and their Time Course

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe, non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses a strong electromagnet in order to temporarily disrupt information processing in a brain region, generating a short-lived &#8220;virtual lesion.&#8221; Stimulation that interferes with task performance indicates that the affected brain region is necessary to perform the task normally. In other words, unlike neuroimaging methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that indicate correlations between brain and behavior, TMS can be used to demonstrate causal brain-behavior relations. Furthermore, by varying the duration and onset of the virtual lesion, TMS can also reveal the time course of normal processing. As a result, TMS has become an important tool in cognitive neuroscience. Advantages of the technique over lesion-deficit studies include better spatial-temporal precision of the disruption effect, the ability to use participants as their own control subjects, and the accessibility of participants. Limitations include concurrent auditory and somatosensory stimulation that may influence task performance, limited access to structures more than a few centimeters from the surface of the scalp, and the relatively large space of free parameters that need to be optimized in order for the experiment to work. Experimental designs that give careful consideration to appropriate control conditions help to address these concerns. This article illustrates these issues with TMS results that investigate the spatial and temporal contributions of the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG) to reading.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique for non-invasively disrupting neural information processing and measuring its effect on behavior. When TMS interferes with a task, it indicates that the stimulated brain region is necessary for normal task performance, allowing one to systematically relate brain regions to cognitive functions.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe, non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses a strong electromagnet in order to temporarily ...

Modulating Cognition Using Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Cerebellum

Numerous studies have emerged recently that demonstrate the possibility of modulating, and in some cases enhancing, cognitive processes by exciting brain regions involved in working memory and attention using transcranial electrical brain stimulation. Some researchers now believe the cerebellum supports cognition, possibly via a remote neuromodulatory effect on the prefrontal cortex. This paper describes a procedure for investigating a role for the cerebellum in cognition using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and a selection of information-processing tasks of varying task difficulty, which have previously been shown to involve working memory, attention and cerebellar functioning. One task is called the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) and the other a novel variant of this task called the Paced Auditory Serial Subtraction Task (PASST). A verb generation task and its two controls (noun and verb reading) were also investigated. All five tasks were performed by three separate groups of participants, before and after the modulation of cortico-cerebellar connectivity using anodal, cathodal or sham tDCS over the right cerebellar cortex. The procedure demonstrates how performance (accuracy, verbal response latency and variability) could be selectively improved after cathodal stimulation, but only during tasks that the participants rated as difficult, and not easy. Performance was unchanged by anodal or sham stimulation. These findings demonstrate a role for the cerebellum in cognition, whereby activity in the left prefrontal cortex is likely dis-inhibited by cathodal tDCS over the right cerebellar cortex. Transcranial brain stimulation is growing in popularity in various labs and clinics. However, the after-effects of tDCS are inconsistent between individuals and not always polarity-specific, and may even be task- or load-specific, all of which requires further study. Future efforts might also be guided towards neuro-enhancement in cerebellar patients presenting with cognitive impairment once a better understanding of brain stimulation mechanisms has emerged.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the cerebellum exerts a remote effect on the prefrontal cortex, which can modulate cognition and performance. This was demonstrated using two information-processing tasks of varying complexity, whereby only cathodal tDCS improved performance when the task was difficult, but not easy.

Numerous studies have emerged recently that demonstrate the possibility of modulating, and in some cases enhancing, cognitive processes by exciting brain ...

Neuronavigation-guided Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Aphasia

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is widely used for several neurological conditions, as it has gained acknowledgement for its potential therapeutic effects. Brain excitability is non-invasively modulated by rTMS, and rTMS to the language areas has proved its potential effects on treatment of aphasia. In our protocol, we aim to artificially induce virtual aphasia in healthy subjects by inhibiting Brodmann area 44 and 45 using neuronavigational TMS (nTMS), and F3 of the International 10-20 EEG system for conventional TMS (cTMS). To measure the degree of aphasia, changes in reaction time to a picture naming task pre- and post-stimulation are measured and compare the delay in reaction time between nTMS and cTMS. Accuracy of the two TMS stimulation methods is compared by averaging the Talairach coordinates of the target and the actual stimulation. Consistency of stimulation is demonstrated by the error range from the target. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate use of nTMS and to describe the benefits and limitations of the nTMS compared to those of cTMS.

This study is designed to test the hypothesis that neuronavigational system-guided transcranial magnetic stimulation has higher accuracy for targeting the intended target as demonstrated by eliciting a greater degree of virtual aphasia in healthy subjects, measured by delay in reaction time to picture naming.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is widely used for several neurological conditions, as it has gained acknowledgement for its potential ...

Concurrent Electroencephalography Recording During Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS)

Oscillatory brain activities are considered to reflect the basis of rhythmic changes in transmission efficacy across brain networks and are assumed to integrate cognitive neural processes. Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) holds the promise to elucidate the causal link between specific frequencies of oscillatory brain activity and cognitive processes. Simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) recording during tACS would offer an opportunity to directly explore immediate neurophysiological effects of tACS. However, it is not trivial to measure EEG signals during tACS, as tACS creates a huge artifact in EEG data. Here we explain how to set up concurrent tACS-EEG experiments. Two necessary considerations for successful EEG recording while applying tACS are highlighted. First, bridging of the tACS and EEG electrodes via leaking EEG gel immediately saturates the EEG amplifier. To avoid bridging via gel, the viscosity of the EEG gel is the most important parameter. The EEG gel must be viscous to avoid bridging, but at the same time sufficiently fluid to create contact between the tACS electrode and the scalp. Second, due to the large amplitude of the tACS artifact, it is important to consider using an EEG system with a high resolution analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. In particular, the magnitude of the tACS artifact can exceed 100 mV at the vicinity of a stimulation electrode when 1 mA tACS is applied. The resolution of the A/D converter is of importance to measure good quality EEG data from the vicinity of the stimulation site. By following these guidelines for the procedures and technical considerations, successful concurrent EEG recording during tACS will be realized.

Concurrent Electroencephalography Recording During Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation tACS

In this article we explain how to set up a concurrent transcranial alternating current stimulation and EEG experiment.

Oscillatory brain activities are considered to reflect the basis of rhythmic changes in transmission efficacy across brain networks and are assumed to ...

Treating Clinical Depression with Repetitive Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Using the Brainsway H1-coil

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an emerging non-pharmacological approach to treating many brain-based disorders. rTMS uses electromagnetic coils to stimulate areas of the brain non-invasively. Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) with the Brainsway H1-coil system specifically is a type of rTMS indicated for treating patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) who are resistant to medication. The unique H1-coil design of this device is able to stimulate neuronal pathways that lie deeper in the targeted brain areas than those reached by conventional rTMS coils. dTMS is considered to be low-risk and well tolerated, making it a viable treatment option for people who have not responded to medication or psychotherapy trials for their depression.
Randomized, sham-control studies have demonstrated that dTMS produces significantly greater improvement in depressive symptoms than sham dTMS treatment in patients with major depression that has not responded to antidepressant medication. In this paper, we will review the methodology for treating major depression with dTMS using an H1-coil.

Here we present a protocol outlining the methodology for treatment of Major Depressive Disorder using the deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (dTMS) system.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an emerging non-pharmacological approach to treating many brain-based disorders. rTMS uses ...

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation to the Unilateral Hemisphere of Rat Brain

Previous rodent models of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) adopted whole-brain stimulation instead of unilateral hemispheric rTMS, which is unlike the protocols used for human subjects. We report a successful application of rTMS to the unilateral hemisphere of rat brain. The rTMS was delivered with a low-frequency (1 Hz), high-frequency (20 Hz), or sham stimulation protocol to one side of the brain by using a small 25-mm figure-8 coil. We placed the center of the coil 1 cm lateral to the vertex on the biauricular line and angulated the coil 45&#176; to the ground to minimize a potential direct effect of rTMS on the contralateral cortex. We also used an in-house water cooling system to enable repetitive magnetic stimulation for more than 20 min, even at a 20-Hz stimulation frequency. Increases in the transcriptions of immediate early genes (Arc, Junb, and Egr2) were greater after rTMS than after sham stimulation. After 5 consecutive days of 20-min 1-Hz rTMS, bdnf mRNA expression was significantly higher in stimulated cortex than in contralateral side. The model presented herein will elucidate the molecular mechanisms of rTMS by allowing analysis of the inter-hemispheric difference in its effect.

We applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to the unilateral hemisphere of rat brain, by placing a 25-mm figure-8 coil 1 cm lateral to the vertex on the biauricular line and angulating the coil by 45&#176;. An in-house water cooling system was used for rTMS for more than 20 min.

Previous rodent models of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) adopted whole-brain stimulation instead of unilateral hemispheric rTMS, ...