Name: fluorescence-quenching of a liposomal-encapsulated near-infrared fluorophore as a tool for in vivo optical imaging
Uploaded: 2015-01-05T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft grants HI-698/10-1 and RU-1652/1-1. We thank Doreen May for excellent technical assistance and the company DYOMICS GmbH, Jena for their kind support.

NOTE: All procedures are approved by the regional animal committee and in accordance with international guidelines on the ethical use of animals.
1. Preparation of Materials and Instruments
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of spontaneously formed vesicle dispersion (SFV)
	<ol>
		<li>Dissolve and prepare stock solutions of the following phospholipids: 214 mg/ml egg phosphatidylcholine (EPC), 134 mg/ml cholesterol, 122 mg/ml 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(pol...

Since liposomes can also serve as delivery systems for fluorescent dyes, they enable imaging of target diseases. The encapsulation of high concentrations of fluorescent dyes such as the NIRF dye, DY676-COOH used here, leads to a high level of fluorescence quenching of the entrapped dye. Fluorescence quenching, a phenomenon seen with many fluorophores at high concentration can be exploited in several in vivo imaging applications, where a high sensitivity and reliable detection of the target area is demanded. The ...

Liposomes have been intensively investigated and serve as one of the most biocompatible biomedical drug delivery systems for clinical applications1,2. They are mainly composed of phospholipids and cholesterol, both of which are biocompatible compounds mimicking parts of natural cell membranes. Whereas hydrophilic substances can be entrapped in the aqueous interior, lipophilic agents can be incorporated within the liposomal phospholipid bilayer3. Encapsulation of substances within the aqueous interior of liposomes grants protection against degradation in vivo and also prevents the host system from toxic effects of cytotoxic drugs used for the therapy of diseases, for example chemotherapeutics aimed at destroying tumor cells. The modification of the liposomal surface with polymers like polyethylenglycol (PEGylation) further extends the liposomal blood circulation time in vivo due to sterical stabilization4. Moreover, liposomes can sequester high concentrations of several substances such as proteins5,6, hydrophilic substances7,8 and enzymes9. They therefore serve as reliable clinical therapeutic and diagnostic tools which merit their approval for delivery of cytotoxic drugs such as doxorubicin for cancer therapy4. Due to their flexibility, liposomes can also be loaded with fluorochromes for diagnostic and image-guided surgical purposes.
Fluorescence imaging provides a cost-effective and non-invasive in vivo diagnostic tool which however, demands some basic requirements. It could be demonstrated that fluorochromes which suit best for in vivo imaging have characteristic absorption and emission maxima in the range where light dispersion and scattering as well as tissue autofluorescence originating from water and hemoglobin is low. Thus, such probes have their abs/em maxima between 650 and 900 nm10. Besides this, the stability of fluorochromes both in vitro and in vivo is critical, as opsonization and rapid clearance can greatly limit their application for in vivo imaging11. Other effects such as poor stability and low sensitivity or cytotoxic effects on target organs as seen with indocyanine green (ICG)12-16, are unwanted and must be taken into consideration when designing probes for in vivo imaging. These observations have led to the active development of several preclinical NIR fluorochromes, nanoparticles as well as new techniques for the in vivo imaging of inflammatory processes, cancer and for image-guided surgery17-20. Despite the stability of most preclinical NIRF (near-infrared fluorescence) dyes in vitro, their rapid perfusion and clearance through the liver and kidney impede their use in the in vivo optical imaging of diseases and inflammatory processes.
We therefore present a protocol for the encapsulation of fluorochromes such as the well characterized near-infrared fluorescent dye DY-676-COOH, known for its tendency to self-quench at relatively high concentrations21 in liposomes. At high concentrations H-dimer formation and/or pi-stacking interactions between fluorophore molecules located within each other&#8217;s F&#246;rster radius result in F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the fluorochrome molecules. At low concentration the space between the fluorophore molecules increases, thereby preventing pi-stacking interaction and H-dimer formation and resulting in high fluorescence emission. The switch between high and low concentration and the accompanying fluorescence quenching and activation is a promising strategy that can be exploited for optical imaging22. In this respect, encapsulation of high concentrations of the NIRF dye DY-676-COOH in the aqueous interior of liposomes is more favorable for in vivo imaging than the free dye. The challenge of the method lies first of all in the correct encapsulation and secondly, in the validation of the benefits resulting from encapsulating high concentrations of the dye. Comparing the imaging properties of quenched liposomes with that of the free dye and also with a non-quenched liposome formulation with low concentrations of the dye is indispensable. We show by a simple, but highly effective film hydration and extrusion protocol combined with alternate freeze and thaw cycles that encapsulation of quenching concentrations of DY-676-COOH in liposomes is feasible. Other methods used to prepare liposomes such as the reversed phase evaporation method23 as well as the ethanol injection method24 enable liposome preparation with high encapsulation efficiencies for many hydrophilic substances. However, the nature of the substance to be encapsulated can influence the encapsulation efficiency. In effect, the film hydration and extrusion protocol presented here revealed the highest efficiency for encapsulation of DY-676-COOH. To illustrate the benefits of liposomal encapsulation of DY-676-COOH, a zymosan-induced edema model, which permits the study of inflammatory processes within a few hours, was used. Here, it is demonstrated that liposomes with high concentrations of the encapsulated DY-676-COOH are more suitable for whole body in vivo optical imaging of inflammatory processes than the free dye or the non-quenched liposomal formulation with low dye concentrations. Thus the underlying protocol provides a simple and fast method to produce quenched fluorescent liposomes and the validation of their activation and imaging potential both in vitro and in vivo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="872">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:267px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:309px;">Materials and equipments for preparation of liposomes</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">egg phospahtidylcholine</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840051P</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Chloroform and store in glass vials (214 mg/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">cholesterol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C8667</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Chloroform and store in glass vials (134 mg/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (ammonium salt)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>880120P</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Chloroform and store in glass vials (122 mg/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:309px;">1,2-dioleoyl-snglycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl) (ammonium salt)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>810145P</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Chloroform and store in glass vials (2mg/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Sartorius MC1 (d = 0.01 mg)</td>
			<td>Sartorius AG</td>
			<td>Research RC 210 P</td>
			<td>used for weighing the phospholipids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:309px;">Rotavapor</td>
			<td>B&#252;chi Labortechnik AG</td>
			<td>R-114</td>
			<td>used for hydration of phospholipid film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:309px;">Waterbath</td>
			<td>B&#252;chi Labortechnik AG</td>
			<td>R-481</td>
			<td>used for hydration of phospholipid film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:309px;">Vacuum Controller</td>
			<td>B&#252;chi Labortechnik AG</td>
			<td>B-720</td>
			<td>used for hydration of phospholipid film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:309px;">Vacobox</td>
			<td>B&#252;chi Labortechnik AG</td>
			<td>B-177</td>
			<td>used for hydration of phospholipid film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:309px;">Circulation Chiller</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">LAUDA DR. R. WOBSER 
			GMBH &#38; CO. KG</td>
			<td>WKL 230</td>
			<td>used for hydration of phospholipid film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DY-676-COOH</td>
			<td>Dyomics GmbH</td>
			<td>676-00</td>
			<td>Dissolve in 10 mM Tris and store stock at -20&#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tris-(Hydroxymethyl)-aminomethan</td>
			<td>Applichem</td>
			<td>A1086</td>
			<td>buffer 10 mM, pH 7.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trichlormethan</td>
			<td>Carl Roth GmbH + Co. KG</td>
			<td>Y015.2</td>
			<td>used for liposome preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sonicator</td>
			<td>Merck Eurolab GmbH</td>
			<td>USR 170 H</td>
			<td>used for liposome preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vortex Genie 2 (Pop-off Cup, No. 146-3011-00)</td>
			<td>Scientific Industries Inc.</td>
			<td>SI-0256</td>
			<td>used for liposome preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sephadex G25 medium&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Europe GmbH</td>
			<td>17-0033-01</td>
			<td>used for liposome purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Triton X100</td>
			<td>Ferak Berlin GmbH</td>
			<td>505002</td>
			<td>used to destruct liposomes&#160; for dye quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LiposoFast-Basic</td>
			<td>Avestin Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for the extrusion of liposomes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polycarbonate filter membrane, 100 nm (Whatman Nucleopore Trans Etch Membrane, NUCLEPR PC 19 MM, 0.1 U)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for the extrusion of liposomes via LiposoFast-Basic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fluostar Optima</td>
			<td>BMG Labtech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for dye quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Zetasizer Nano ZS</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for the determination of liposome size and zetapotential</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Ultracentrifuge&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Beckmann Coulter GmbH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">XL 80</td>
			<td>used for concentration of the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Rotor</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Beckmann Coulter GmbH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SW 55 TI</td>
			<td>used for concentration of the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:309px;">Materials and equipments for the evaluation of liposome and optical imaging&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Zymosan-A from Saccharomyces cereviciae</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z4250-250MG</td>
			<td>used for induction of inflammation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Isotonic Saline (0.9)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fresenius GmbH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN-2159621</td>
			<td>used for the dilution of Zymosan-A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Isoflurane vaporizer</td>
			<td>Ohmeda Isotec 4</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for anesthesizing animals</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Actavis GmbH&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN-7253744</td>
			<td>anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermo Mat Pro 20 W</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Lucky Reptile</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">61202-HTP-20</td>
			<td>used to keep animals warm during anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Omnican-F (1 ml injection)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Braun</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN-3115465</td>
			<td>used for subcutaneous and intravenous application of probes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Panthenol eye cream</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jenapharm</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN-3524531</td>
			<td>used to prevent dryness of the eyes of animals during anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:309px;">Hanks buffered saline solution</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">PAA Laboratories /Biochrom AG</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L2045</td>
			<td>w/o Mg2+, Ca2+ and phenol red. For dilution of probes and for washing of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">8-Well chamber slides</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">354108</td>
			<td>used for cell culture followed by microscopy&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Cell culture flasks</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Greiner BioOne</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cell culture media</td>
			<td colspan="2">Gibco (life technologies GmbH)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fetal calf serum&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Poly-L-Lysine solution (0,01% - 50&#160;ml)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4832</td>
			<td>used to coat cell culture chamber slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mountant Permafluor</td>
			<td>ThermoScientific&#160;</td>
			<td>S21022-3</td>
			<td>Mounting solution for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Hoechst-33258</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">AppliChem</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>DNA stain for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Hera-Safe</td>
			<td>Heraeus Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>sterile work bench used for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HERA cell</td>
			<td>Heraeus Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Incubator used for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">LSM510-Meta</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for confocal microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:309px;">Maestro-TM in vivo fluorescence imaging system</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">CRi, Woburn</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for whole body fluorescence imaging of small animals</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Spectrophotometer (Ultrospec 4300 pro UV)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for measurement of absorption</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Spectrofluorometer (Jasco FP-6200)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jasco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for measurement of fluorescence emission</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:309px;">Animals</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NMRI mice (8-12 weeks old, male)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Elevage Janvier, France</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>used for inflammation trials</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fluorescence-quenching of a liposomal-encapsulated near-infrared fluorophore as a tool for in vivo optical imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous number of imaging techniques currently available and the progress in instrumentation, there is still a need for highly sensitive probes that are suitable for in vivo imaging. One typical problem of available preclinical fluorescent probes is their rapid clearance in vivo, which reduces their imaging sensitivity. To circumvent rapid clearance, increase number of dye molecules at the target site, and thereby reduce background autofluorescence, encapsulation of the near-infrared fluorescent dye, DY-676-COOH in liposomes and verification of its potential for in vivo imaging of inflammation was done. DY-676 is known for its ability to self-quench at high concentrations. We first determined the concentration suitable for self-quenching, and then encapsulated this quenching concentration into the aqueous interior of PEGylated liposomes. To substantiate the quenching and activation potential of the liposomes we use a harsh freezing method which leads to damage of liposomal membranes without affecting the encapsulated dye. The liposomes characterized by a high level of fluorescence quenching were termed Lip-Q. We show by experiments with different cell lines that uptake of Lip-Q is predominantly by phagocytosis which in turn enabled the characterization of its potential as a tool for in vivo imaging of inflammation in mice models. Furthermore, we use a zymosan-induced edema model in mice to substantiate the potential of Lip-Q in optical imaging of inflammation in vivo. Considering possible uptake due to inflammation-induced enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, an always-on liposome formulation with low, non-quenched concentration of DY-676-COOH (termed Lip-dQ) and the free DY-676-COOH were compared with Lip-Q in animal trials.

The encapsulation of high concentrations of fluorescent dyes such as the NIRF dye DY676-COOH used here in the aqueous interior of liposomes leads to a high level of fluorescence quenching. Fluorescence quenching, a phenomenon seen with many fluorophores at high concentration, can be exploited in several in vivo imaging applications where a high sensitivity and reliable detection of the target area are demanded. The use of liposomes also provides protection of the dye which is indispensable for in vivo a...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging at JoVE.com

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

The use of fluorophores for in vivo imaging can be greatly limited by opsonization, rapid clearance, low detection sensitivity and cytotoxic effects on the host. Encapsulation of fluorophores in liposomes by film hydration and extrusion leads to fluorescence quenching and protection which enables in vivo imaging with high detection sensitivity.

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

fluorescence-quenching-liposomal-encapsulated-near-infrared

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As the mainstays of in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) optical microscopy, single-/multi-photon fluorescence microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have demonstrated their extraordinary sensitivities to fluorescence and optical scattering contrasts, respectively. However, the optical absorption contrast of biological tissues, which encodes essential physiological/pathological information, has not yet been assessable. 
The emergence of biomedical photoacoustics has led to a new branch of optical microscopy optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM)1, where the optical irradiation is focused to the diffraction limit to achieve cellular1 or even subcellular2 level lateral resolution. As a valuable complement to existing optical microscopy technologies, OR-PAM brings in at least two novelties. First and most importantly, OR-PAM detects optical absorption contrasts with extraordinary sensitivity (i.e., 100%). Combining OR-PAM with fluorescence microscopy3 or with optical-scattering-based OCT4 (or with both) provides comprehensive optical properties of biological tissues. Second, OR-PAM encodes optical absorption into acoustic waves, in contrast to the pure optical processes in fluorescence microscopy and OCT, and provides background-free detection. The acoustic detection in OR-PAM mitigates the impacts of optical scattering on signal degradation and naturally eliminates possible interferences (i.e., crosstalks) between excitation and detection, which is a common problem in fluorescence microscopy due to the overlap between the excitation and fluorescence spectra. 
Unique for optical absorption imaging, OR-PAM has demonstrated broad biomedical applications since its invention, including, but not limited to, neurology5, 6, ophthalmology7, 8, vascular biology9, and dermatology10. In this video, we teach the system configuration and alignment of OR-PAM as well as the experimental procedures for in vivo functional microvascular imaging.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is an emerging technology capable of imaging optical absorption contrasts in vivo with cellular resolution and sensitivity. Here, we provide a visualized instruction on the experimental protocols of OR-PAM, including system configuration, system alignment, typical in vivo experimental procedures, and functional imaging schemes.

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As ...

A Cre-Lox P Recombination Approach for the Detection of Cell Fusion In Vivo

The ability of two or more cells of the same type to fuse has been utilized in metazoans throughout evolution to form many complex organs, including skeletal muscle, bone and placenta. Contemporary studies demonstrate fusion of cells of the same type confers enhanced function. For example, when the trophoblast cells of the placenta fuse to form the syncytiotrophoblast, the syncytiotrophoblast is better able to transport nutrients and hormones across the maternal-fetal barrier than unfused trophoblasts1-4. More recent studies demonstrate fusion of cells of different types can direct cell fate. The "reversion" or modification of cell fate by fusion was once thought to be limited to cell culture systems. But the advent of stem cell transplantation led to the discovery by us and others that stem cells can fuse with somatic cells in vivo and that fusion facilitates stem cell differentiation5-7. Thus, cell fusion is a regulated process capable of promoting cell survival and differentiation and thus could be of central importance for development, repair of tissues and even the pathogenesis of disease.
Limiting the study of cell fusion, is lack of appropriate technology to 1) accurately identify fusion products and to 2) track fusion products over time. Here we present a novel approach to address both limitations via induction of bioluminescence upon fusion (Figure 1); bioluminescence can be detected with high sensitivity in vivo8-15. We utilize a construct encoding the firefly luciferase (Photinus pyralis) gene placed adjacent to a stop codon flanked by LoxP sequences. When cells expressing this gene fuse with cells expressing the Cre recombinase protein, the LoxP sites are cleaved and the stop signal is excised allowing transcription of luciferase. Because the signal is inducible, the incidence of false-positive signals is very low. Unlike existing methods which utilize the Cre/LoxP system16, 17, we have incorporated a "living" detection signal and thereby afford for the first time the opportunity to track the kinetics of cell fusion in vivo.
To demonstrate the approach, mice ubiquitously expressing Cre recombinase served as recipients of stem cells transfected with a construct to express luciferase downstream of a floxed stop codon. Stem cells were transplanted via intramyocardial injection and after transplantation intravital image analysis was conducted to track the presence of fusion products in the heart and surrounding tissues over time. This approach could be adapted to analyze cell fusion in any tissue type at any stage of development, disease or adult tissue repair.

A Cre-Lox P Recombination Approach for the Detection of Cell Fusion In Vivo

A method to track cell fusion in living organisms over time is described. The approach utilizes Cre-LoxP recombination to induce luciferase expression upon cell fusion. The luminescent signal generated can be detected in living organisms using biophotonic imaging systems with a sensitivity of detection of &tilde;1,000 cells in peripheral tissues.

The ability of two or more cells of the same type to fuse has been utilized in metazoans throughout evolution to form many complex organs, including ...

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being investigated for applications in imaging and therapy. Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) derived from plants can be regarded as self-assembled bionanomaterials with defined sizes and shapes. Plant viruses under investigation in the Steinmetz lab include icosahedral particles formed by Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and Brome mosaic virus (BMV), both of which are 30 nm in diameter. We are also developing rod-shaped and filamentous structures derived from the following plant viruses: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), which forms rigid rods with dimensions of 300 nm by 18 nm, and Potato virus X (PVX), which form filamentous particles 515 nm in length and 13 nm in width (the reader is referred to refs. 1 and 2 for further information on VNPs).
From a materials scientist's point of view, VNPs are attractive building blocks for several reasons: the particles are monodisperse, can be produced with ease on large scale in planta, are exceptionally stable, and biocompatible. Also, VNPs are "programmable" units, which can be specifically engineered using genetic modification or chemical bioconjugation methods 3. The structure of VNPs is known to atomic resolution, and modifications can be carried out with spatial precision at the atomic level4, a level of control that cannot be achieved using synthetic nanomaterials with current state-of-the-art technologies.
In this paper, we describe the propagation of CPMV, PVX, TMV, and BMV in Vigna ungiuculata and Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Extraction and purification protocols for each VNP are given. Methods for characterization of purified and chemically-labeled VNPs are described. In this study, we focus on chemical labeling of VNPs with fluorophores (e.g. Alexa Fluor 647) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). The dyes facilitate tracking and detection of the VNPs 5-10, and PEG reduces immunogenicity of the proteinaceous nanoparticles while enhancing their pharmacokinetics 8,11. We demonstrate tumor homing of PEGylated VNPs using a mouse xenograft tumor model. A combination of fluorescence imaging of tissues ex vivo using Maestro Imaging System, fluorescence quantification in homogenized tissues, and confocal microscopy is used to study biodistribution. VNPs are cleared via the reticuloendothelial system (RES); tumor homing is achieved passively via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect12. The VNP nanotechnology is a powerful plug-and-play technology to image and treat sites of disease in vivo. We are further developing VNPs to carry drug cargos and clinically-relevant imaging moieties, as well as tissue-specific ligands to target molecular receptors overexpressed in cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

Plant viral nanoparticles (VNPs) are promising platforms for applications in biomedicine. Here, we describe the procedures for plant VNP propagation, purification, characterization, and bioconjugation. Finally, we show the application of VNPs for tumor homing and imaging using a mouse xenograft model and fluorescence imaging.

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being ...

Imaging Denatured Collagen Strands In vivo and Ex vivo via Photo-triggered Hybridization of Caged Collagen Mimetic Peptides

Collagen is a major structural component of the extracellular matrix that supports tissue formation and maintenance. Although collagen remodeling is an integral part of normal tissue renewal, excessive amount of remodeling activity is involved in tumors, arthritis, and many other pathological conditions. During collagen remodeling, the triple helical structure of collagen molecules is disrupted by proteases in the extracellular environment. In addition, collagens present in many histological tissue samples are partially denatured by the fixation and preservation processes. Therefore, these denatured collagen strands can serve as effective targets for biological imaging. We previously developed a caged collagen mimetic peptide (CMP) that can be photo-triggered to hybridize with denatured collagen strands by forming triple helical structure, which is unique to collagens. The overall goals of this procedure are i)&#160;to image denatured collagen strands resulting from normal remodeling activities in vivo, and ii) to visualize collagens in ex vivo tissue sections using the photo-triggered caged CMPs. To achieve effective hybridization and successful in vivo and ex vivo imaging, fluorescently labeled caged CMPs are either photo-activated immediately before intravenous injection, or are directly activated on tissue sections. Normal skeletal collagen remolding in nude mice and collagens in prefixed mouse cornea tissue sections are imaged in this procedure. The imaging method based on the CMP-collagen hybridization technology presented here could lead to deeper understanding of the tissue remodeling process, as well as allow development of new diagnostics for diseases associated with high collagen remodeling activity.

Imaging Denatured Collagen Strands In vivo and Ex vivo via Photo-triggered Hybridization of Caged Collagen Mimetic Peptides

This procedure demonstrates in vivo near IR fluorescence imaging of collagen remodeling activities in mice as well as ex vivo staining of collagens in tissue sections using caged collagen mimetic peptides that can be photo-triggered to hybridize with denatured collagen strands.

Collagen is a major structural component of the extracellular matrix that supports tissue formation and maintenance. Although collagen remodeling is an ...

Selective Cell Elimination from Mixed 3D Culture Using a Near Infrared Photoimmunotherapy Technique

Recent developments in tissue engineering offer innovative solutions for many diseases. For example, tissue engineering using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPS) emerged as a new method in regenerative medicine. Although this tissue regeneration is promising, contamination with unwanted cells during tissue cultures is a major concern. Moreover, there is a safety concern regarding tumorigenicity after transplantation. Therefore, there is an urgent need for eliminating specific cells without damaging other cells that need to be protected, especially in established tissue. Here, we present a method for specific cell elimination from a mixed 3D cell culture in vitro with near infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) without damaging non-targeted cells. This technique enables the elimination of specific cells from mixed cell cultures or tissues.

Eliminating specific cells without damaging other cells is extremely difficult, especially in established tissue, yet there is an urgent need for a cell elimination method in the tissue engineering field. Here, we present a method for specific cell elimination from a mixed 3D cell culture using near infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT).

Recent developments in tissue engineering offer innovative solutions for many diseases. For example, tissue engineering using induced pluripotent stem ...

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions. While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling mechanisms, they neglect important cellular cues received from the structural and mechanical properties of the local microenvironment and extracellular matrix (ECM). To understand how cells interact within a physiological ECM, it is important to study them in the context of 3 dimensional assays. Cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation are only a few processes that have been shown to be impacted by local changes in the mechanical properties of a 3-dimensional ECM. Collagen I, a core fibrillar component of the ECM, is more than a simple structural element of a tissue. Under normal conditions, mechanical cues from the collagen network direct morphogenesis and maintain cellular structures. In diseased microenvironments, such as the tumor microenvironment, the collagen network is often dramatically remodeled, demonstrating altered composition, enhanced deposition and altered fiber organization. In breast cancer, the degree of fiber alignment is important, as an increase in aligned fibers perpendicular to the tumor boundary has been correlated to poorer patient prognosis1. Aligned collagen matrices result in increased dissemination of tumor cells via persistent migration2,3. The following is a simple protocol for embedding cells within a 3-dimensional, fibrillar collagen hydrogel. This protocol is readily adaptable to many platforms, and can reproducibly generate both aligned and random collagen matrices for investigation of cell migration, cell division, and other cellular processes in a tunable, 3-dimensional, physiological microenvironment.

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Collagen is a core component of the ECM, and provides essential cues for several cellular processes ranging from migration to differentiation and proliferation. Provided here is a protocol for embedding cells within 3D collagen hydrogels, and a more advanced technique for generating randomized or aligned collagen matrices using PDMS microchannels.

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions.  While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling ...

The Synthesis of RGD-functionalized Hydrogels as a Tool for Therapeutic Applications

The use of polymers as biomaterials has provided significant advantages in therapeutic applications. In particular, the possibility to modify and functionalize polymer chains with compounds that are able to improve biocompatibility, mechanical properties, or cell viability allows the design of novel materials to meet new challenges in the biomedical field. With the polymer functionalization strategies, click chemistry is a powerful tool to improve cell-compatibility and drug delivery properties of polymeric devices. Similarly, the fundamental need of biomedicine to use sterile tools to avoid potential adverse-side effects, such as toxicity or contamination of the biological environment, gives rise to increasing interest in the microwave-assisted strategy.
The combination of click chemistry and the microwave-assisted method is suitable to produce biocompatible hydrogels with desired functionalities and improved performances in biomedical applications. This work aims to synthesize RGD-functionalized hydrogels. RGD (arginylglycylaspartic acid) is a tripeptide that can mimic cell adhesion proteins and bind to cell-surface receptors, creating a hospitable microenvironment for cells within the 3D polymeric network of the hydrogels. RGD functionalization occurs through Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. Some PAA carboxyl groups are modified with an alkyne moiety, whereas RGD is functionalized with azido acid as the terminal residue of the peptide sequence. Finally, both products are used in a copper catalyzed click reaction to permanently link the peptide to PAA. This modified polymer is used with carbomer, agarose and polyethylene glycol (PEG) to synthesize a hydrogel matrix. The 3D structure is formed due to an esterification reaction involving carboxyl groups from PAA and carbomer and hydroxyl groups from agarose and PEG through microwave-assisted polycondensation. The efficiency of the gelation mechanism ensures a high degree of RGD functionalization. In addition, the procedure to load therapeutic compounds or biological tools within this functionalized network is very simple and reproducible.

We present a protocol for the synthesis of RGD-functionalized hydrogels as devices for cell and drug delivery. The procedure involves copper catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) between alkyne-modified polyacrylic acid (PAA) and a RGD-azide derivative. The hydrogels are formed using microwave-assisted polycondensation and their physicochemical properties are investigated.

The use of polymers as biomaterials has provided significant advantages in therapeutic applications. In particular, the possibility to modify and ...

Targeted Plasma Membrane Delivery of a Hydrophobic Cargo Encapsulated in a Liquid Crystal Nanoparticle Carrier

The controlled delivery of drug/imaging agents to cells is critical for the development of therapeutics and for the study of cellular signaling processes. Recently, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown significant promise in the development of such delivery systems. Here, a liquid crystal NP (LCNP)-based delivery system has been employed for the controlled delivery of a water-insoluble dye, 3,3&#8242;-dioctadecyloxacarbocyanine perchlorate (DiO), from within the NP core to the hydrophobic region of a plasma membrane bilayer. During the synthesis of the NPs, the dye was efficiently incorporated into the hydrophobic LCNP core, as confirmed by multiple spectroscopic analyses. Conjugation of a PEGylated cholesterol derivative to the NP surface (DiO-LCNP-PEG-Chol) enabled the binding of the dye-loaded NPs to the plasma membrane in HEK 293T/17 cells. Time-resolved laser scanning confocal microscopy and F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging confirmed the passive efflux of DiO from the LCNP core and its insertion into the plasma membrane bilayer. Finally, the delivery of DiO as a LCNP-PEG-Chol attenuated the cytotoxicity of DiO; the NP form of DiO exhibited ~30-40% less toxicity compared to DiOfree delivered from bulk solution. This approach demonstrates the utility of the LCNP platform as an efficient modality for the membrane-specific delivery and modulation of hydrophobic molecular cargos.

A liquid crystal nanoparticle (LCNP) nanocarrier is exploited as a vehicle for the controlled delivery of a hydrophobic cargo to the plasma membrane of living cells.

The controlled delivery of drug/imaging agents to cells is critical for the development of therapeutics and for the study of cellular signaling processes. ...

DNA Nanotubes as a Versatile Tool to Study Semiflexible Polymers

Mechanical properties of complex, polymer-based soft matter, such as cells or biopolymer networks, can be understood in neither the classical frame of flexible polymers nor of rigid rods. Underlying filaments remain outstretched due to their non-vanishing backbone stiffness, which is quantified via the persistence length (lp), but they are also subject to strong thermal fluctuations. Their finite bending stiffness leads to unique, non-trivial collective mechanics of bulk networks, enabling the formation of stable scaffolds at low volume fractions while providing large mesh sizes. This underlying principle is prevalent in nature (e.g., in cells or tissues), minimizing the high molecular content and thereby facilitating diffusive or active transport. Due to their biological implications and potential technological applications in biocompatible hydrogels, semiflexible polymers have been subject to considerable study. However, comprehensible investigations remained challenging since they relied on natural polymers, such as actin filaments, which are not freely tunable. Despite these limitations and due to the lack of synthetic, mechanically tunable, and semiflexible polymers, actin filaments were established as the common model system. A major limitation is that the central quantity lp cannot be freely tuned to study its impact on macroscopic bulk structures. This limitation was resolved by employing structurally programmable DNA nanotubes, enabling controlled alteration of the filament stiffness. They are formed through tile-based designs, where a discrete set of partially complementary strands hybridize in a ring structure with a discrete circumference. These rings feature sticky ends, enabling the effective polymerization into filaments several microns in length, and display similar polymerization kinetics as natural biopolymers. Due to their programmable mechanics, these tubes are versatile, novel tools to study the impact of lp on the single-molecule as well as the bulk scale. In contrast to actin filaments, they remain stable over weeks, without notable degeneration, and their handling is comparably straightforward.

Semiflexible polymers display unique mechanical properties that are extensively applied by living systems. However, systematic studies on biopolymers are limited since properties such as polymer rigidity are inaccessible. This manuscript describes how this limitation is circumvented by programmable DNA nanotubes, enabling experimental studies on the impact of filament rigidity.

Mechanical properties of complex, polymer-based soft matter, such as cells or biopolymer networks, can be understood in neither the classical frame of ...

A Novel Surgical Technique As a Foundation for In Vivo Partial Liver Engineering in Rat

Organ engineering is a novel strategy to generate liver organ substitutes that can potentially be used in transplantation. Recently, in vivo liver engineering, including in vivo organ decellularization followed by repopulation, has emerged as a promising approach over ex vivo liver engineering. However, postoperative survival was not achieved. The aim of this study is to develop a novel surgical technique of in vivo selective liver lobe perfusion in rats as a prerequisite for in vivo liver engineering. We generate a circuit bypass only through the left lateral lobe. Then, the left lateral lobe is perfused with heparinized saline. The experiment is performed with 4 groups (n = 3 rats per group) based on different perfusion times of 20 min, 2 h, 3 h, and 4 h. Survival, as well as the macroscopically visible change of color and the histologically determined absence of blood cells in the portal triad and the sinusoids, is taken as an indicator for a successful model establishment. After selective perfusion of the left lateral lobe, we observe that the left lateral lobe, indeed, turned from red to faint yellow. In a histological assessment, no blood cells are visible in the branch of the portal vein, the central vein, and the sinusoids. The left lateral lobe turns red after reopening the blocked vessels. 12/12 rats survived the procedure for more than one week. We are the first to report a surgical model for in vivo single liver lobe perfusion with a long survival period of more than one week. In contrast to the previously published report, the most important advantage of the technique presented here is that perfusion of 70% of the liver is maintained throughout the whole procedure. The establishment of this technique provides a foundation for in vivo partial liver engineering in rats, including decellularization and recellularization.

A Novel Surgical Technique As a Foundation for In Vivo Partial Liver Engineering in Rat

We establish a novel surgical technique for an in vivo single liver lobe perfusion model in rat as a prerequisite for further studying in vivo partial liver engineering in the future.