This work was supported by the European Fuel Cells and Hydruogen Joint Undertaking under collaborative project BOR4STORE (Grant Agreement No. 303428) and infrastructure program H2FC (Grant Agreement No. FP7-284522).

1. Apparatus
<ol>
	<li>Use a basic supercritical drying (ScD) apparatus comprised of four primary components connected by high pressure gas tubing: the gas supply, a vacuum system, sensors (temperature and pressure), and the sample environment (which can be submersed in a bath). Ensure that the construction is of high-quality stainless steel valves, fittings, and tubing, pressure-rated to at least 10 MPa within the temperature range between 80-300 K. 
	Note: A schematic is shown in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>For nitrogen ScD (NScD) treatments, ensure that the gas supply is research purity (&#62;99.999%) nitrogen gas fitted with a pressure regulator for outlet pressure control between 0-10 MPa. Attach a 50 L bottle (20 MPa) to the apparatus, and purge the system with pure nitrogen multiple times before use.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the vacuum system is capable of achieving vacuum pressures down to &#60;0.1 Pa and is connected to the apparatus with a fine-control needle valve. Preferably, use an oil-free roughing pump and a molecular-drag turbo pump, placed in series.</li>
	<li>Use at least two pressure sensors for accurate measurement of the pressure during ScD treatments: a low pressure sensor for vacuum measurement and a high pressure sensor to achieve a total measurable pressure range between 0.1-107 Pa.</li>
	<li>Use at least two temperature sensors for the minimal accuracy necessary to perform typical ScD treatments: a sensor in thermal contact with the sample and a sensor within the primary gas dosing manifold for accurate measurements between 77-300 K (e.g., K-type thermocouples).</li>
	<li>Check that the sample holder has an appropriate inner volume to contain the amount of sample necessary for treatment, and is constructed of stainless steel. 
	Note: A lengthened cylindrical design aids in thermal contact with the bath.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the fitting that closes the sample container is appropriate for high pressures and repeated use (e.g., Swagelok VCR). Connect the sample container volume to a valve for isolation from the outside environment via an appropriate length of tubing (the dip tube) for complete immersion of the sample holder into the bath.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Supercritical Nitrogen Drying (NScD) Apparatus. A schematic depiction of the simplified NScD apparatus for use in the typical laboratory: (A) at ambient temperature and (B) after submersion of the sample in the bath. The gas supply for the process described in this work is nitrogen, but this general apparatus is generalizable to other ScD fluids with a critical point lying within a practical range of temperature and pressure, such as CO2. The components are labeled for consistency with the protocol described herein. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig1highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
2. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Load 0.2-0.5 g of sample (&#947;-Mg(BH4)2, in powder form, following wet-chemical synthesis and standard drying methods) into the sample holder under appropriate conditions, typically in an inert atmosphere such as an argon glovebox, at ambient temperature or below. Close the sample holder (fitting F2) with a filter gasket and then close the valve (valve V4). Transfer the sample holder to the apparatus and attach (fitting F1).</li>
	<li>Open the dosing manifold to vacuum via V2 and evacuate. Open V3 and evacuate. Purge the apparatus with nitrogen via V1 and evacuate via V2. Open V4 and evacuate the sample at RT for up to 24 hr, to reach the minimum pressure of the system (&#60;0.1 Pa).</li>
	<li>Install the sample bath (see Figure 2) around the sample holder. Perform this by raising the bath into position on a scissor lift, or similar mechanism.</li>
	<li>Set the heater to the desired future liquid temperature (Tl, see step 3.1) of 110 K, and continue to evacuate the apparatus until the temperature equilibrates.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Cryogenic Furnace Sample Bath. A schematic depiction (left) and photograph (right) of a cryostatic thermal bath environment appropriate for containing the sample holder during NScD processing, permitting measurement and control of the sample temperature between 77-298 K. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
3. Supercritical Nitrogen Exposure
<ol>
	<li>For NScD processing of &#947;-Mg(BH4)2, (the subject of demonstration in this protocol) select a liquid temperature (Tl) of 110 K. This corresponds to a moderate liquid solvent density (~0.6 g ml-1); Adjust as necessary for the application of this protocol to other NScD treatment processes (see the Note below).</li>
	<li>Close off the system to vacuum by closing V2. Throttle open V1 slowly, allowing the pressure to increase into the liquid region of the phase diagram. Equilibrate the system at 2 MPa and Tl.</li>
	<li>Soak the sample in liquid N2 for 4 hr.</li>
	<li>Set the heater to 150 K with a ramp &#8804;2 K min-1. Allow the pressure to increase no higher than the maximum rated pressure of the apparatus (this Pmax should be &#8805;10 MPa); if necessary, carefully vent the excess pressure to vacuum via V2. Equilibrate the system at Pmax and 150 K.</li>
	<li>Soak the sample in supercritical N2 for 1 hr.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Phase Diagram of Nitrogen. A detailed phase diagram of nitrogen, where the fluid density (shown in linear greyscale) is calculated using Refprop (a modified Webb-Benedict-Rubin equation of state).41 Various lines of constant density are shown in purple. The solid phase boundaries and boiling transition lines are shown in red. The blue lines indicate the boundary of the region of the phase diagram that is relevant for drying or extraction processing using N2. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52817/52817fig3highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Note: For the application of this protocol to other materials, establish an appropriate NScD treatment scheme by choosing the conditions necessary for effective solvation of the target species. Refer to the phase diagram of N2, shown in Figure 3. To achieve a high fluid density in the liquid phase (e.g., 0.8-1 g ml-1), select a Tl of 80-90 K. For moderate liquid density (e.g., 0.6-0.8 g ml-1), select a Tl of 90-115 K. A trial and error approach may be necessary.
4. Supercritical Nitrogen Release
<ol>
	<li>Carefully crack the system to vacuum by throttling V2, allowing the pressure to decrease as slowly as possible. Repeatedly crack the system to higher vacuum rates as necessary to achieve a gradual decline to high vacuum (&#60;0.1 Pa) in the approximate time span of 12-24 hr.</li>
	<li>Remove the sample bath and fully open V2 to completely evacuate the sample. Equilibrate at RT and high vacuum (&#60;0.1 Pa).</li>
	<li>Degas the sample at RT and &#60;0.1 Pa for 1-24 hr, as desired.</li>
</ol>
5. Post Treatment
<ol>
	<li>Close valves V3 and V4, and remove the sample holder from the apparatus (fitting F1).</li>
	<li>Transfer the sample holder to an inert environment for handling, such as an argon-filled glovebox. Remove the sample from the sample holder (fitting F2) and store in a sealed container at ambient temperature or below.</li>
</ol>

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R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Manganese+borohydride;+synthesis+and+characterization.">Manganese borohydride; synthesis and characterization.</a> Dalton Trans. , (2015).</li><li>Liang, S., Tilotta, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extraction+of+petroleum+hydrocarbons+from+soil+using+supercritical+argon.">Extraction of petroleum hydrocarbons from soil using supercritical argon.</a> Anal. Chem. 70 (3), 616-622 (1998).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Perhaps due to its relatively low critical temperature (126 K), N2 has historically been overlooked as an effective ScD solvent. In earlier reports,3,17,42,43 it has only been alluded to in the context of processing temperatures at or above ambient, where it exhibits only modest solvation power due to its low fluid density in this region of its phase diagram (except at extremely high pressures43). The key step in realizing the practical utility of N2 as a supercritical solvent ...

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and drying (ScD) methods are well established in a wide range of practical applications, especially in the food and petroleum industries, but also in chemical synthesis, analysis, and materials processing.1-6 The use of drying or extraction media at conditions above their critical points is often faster, cleaner, and more efficient than traditional (liquid) techniques, and has the added advantage of being highly tunable with respect to the solvation power of the fluid by slight adjustment of the operating conditions.3,7 A simple ScD method consists of three basic steps. The first step is exposing the solid (or perhaps liquid) starting material which contains the target impurity compound to an appropriately chosen ScD fluid in its liquid (or near-liquid supercritical) phase, where its high density corresponds to a high (and perhaps selective7) solvent power with respect to the target species. The second step is heating and compressing the system above the chosen ScD fluid&#8217;s critical point in a closed container so that the fluid and its dissolved target species do not pass a phase boundary which might result in separation. The final step is slowly reducing the pressure of the ScD fluid to vacuum at a temperature above the critical temperature, allowing the fluid solution containing the target species to escape, again without encountering a phase boundary or any detrimental surface tension effects along the way.
The starting material is left depleted of the target species and may be subjected to iterated treatments if necessary. In cases of supercritical fluid extraction, the target solute species is the desired product, and is collected from solution for further use.8,9 In other cases, the dried or purified starting material is the desired product, and the extracted impurities are discarded. This latter scenario, referred to herein as the ScD approach, was discovered to be an effective strategy for the pretreatment of high surface area, microporous materials such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), where traditional heat-treatment methods under vacuum are in many cases not sufficient in clearing the pores of all unwanted guests, or result in pore collapse.10 Carbon dioxide ScD (CScD) processing is now a routine post-synthetic process for MOFs,11 leading to increases in nitrogen-accessible surface areas over untreated materials of up to 1,000%12 and other improvements, such as in catalytic activity.13 Other notable supercritical fluid applications are as a widely tunable medium for chemical reactions,14-16 supercritical fluid chromatography (SCFC)6,17,18 and synthesis of aerogels and advanced composite materials.19-22
For drying applications, a ScD fluid is chosen based on two criteria: a) the proximity of its critical point to ambient conditions (for convenience and to reduce energy costs or process complexity) and b) its solvation power with respect to the target species. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has proven to be a convenient ScD fluid in many applications since it is nontoxic, nonflammable, and cheap, and can be tuned to exhibit a high solvation power toward a number of common organic target species in its near-liquid state (at pressures of &#60;10 MPa and temperatures of 273-323 K).1-3,7-9 Other common supercritical solvents (or co-solvents) include water (spanning a remarkable range of solvent properties between its ambient and supercritical state23), acetone, ethylene, methanol, ethanol, and ethane, covering the spectrum from polar (protic and aprotic) to nonpolar, and having critical points relatively near to ambient conditions.
Carbon dioxide is by far the most common ScD fluid used. In established CScD methods, the reactivity of the starting material is not an inhibitive factor since CO2 is only very weakly reactive at temperatures near its critical point. However, certain classes of materials such as so-called complex hydrides (e.g., alanates and borohydrides) present unique challenges in handling due to their strong reactivity in the presence of water or CO2 in addition to their (perhaps intentionally tailored) instability under heating.24-26 Moreover, there is great international interest in such materials as high-density hydrogen storage compounds,27-30 and therefore also in nanostructured and/or porous varieties31-33. For the effective purification of such reactive, unstable, and nanostructured materials, ScD methods are a promising strategy.34 A ScD fluid must be used which has a small molecular diameter appropriate for penetration into narrow cavities and which also has a high solvation power toward the target impurities, while remaining unreactive toward the starting material itself. Herein, the use of supercritical nitrogen (N2) as an effective fluid for such extraction and especially drying applications is presented. A specific supercritical nitrogen drying (NScD) methodology is described below for the purification of &#947;-phase magnesium borohydride where the target species include both diborane and an n-butyl compound (similar to but not specifically identifiable as n-butane). The following protocol can be easily modified for general extension to other supercritical nitrogen drying or extraction processes.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Compressed Nitrogen Gas</td><td>Messer Schweiz AG</td><td></td><td>50 L bottle, purity &gt; 99.999%, &amp;lt;3 ppmv H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O</td></tr><tr><td>Liquid Nitrogen</td><td>Pan Gas AG</td><td></td><td>Bulk storage, on site</td></tr><tr><td>Custom Supercritical Drying Apparatus</td><td>Empa</td><td></td><td>Swagelok (compression fitting and VCR) components</td></tr><tr><td>Custom Cryogenic Furnace Bath</td><td>Empa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Custom Labview Interface</td><td>Empa</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

supercritical nitrogen processing for the purification of reactive porous materials

Supercritical fluid extraction and drying methods are well established in numerous applications for the synthesis and processing of porous materials. Herein, nitrogen is presented as a novel supercritical drying fluid for specialized applications such as in the processing of reactive porous materials, where carbon dioxide and other fluids are not appropriate due to their higher chemical reactivity. Nitrogen exhibits similar physical properties in the near-critical region of its phase diagram as compared to carbon dioxide: a widely tunable density up to ~1 g ml-1, modest critical pressure (3.4 MPa), and small molecular diameter of ~3.6 &#197;. The key to achieving a high solvation power of nitrogen is to apply a processing temperature in the range of 80-150 K, where the density of nitrogen is an order of magnitude higher than at similar pressures near ambient temperature. The detailed solvation properties of nitrogen, and especially its selectivity, across a wide range of common target species of extraction still require further investigation. Herein we describe a protocol for the supercritical nitrogen processing of porous magnesium borohydride.

Alkali and alkaline earth metal borohydrides are potential hydrogen storage materials, which deliver a large content of gaseous hydrogen upon decomposition.27,29 Other decomposition products such as diborane have also sometimes been detected in the gas desorbed, but their origin is not a priori clear; it is possible they are products of the pure phase decomposition, but may also be impurities or products of reactions of impurities leftover from chemical synthesis.35 The porous phase of magnesium bor...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Supercritical Nitrogen Processing for the Purification of Reactive Porous Materials at JoVE.com

Supercritical Nitrogen Processing for the Purification of Reactive Porous Materials

Nitrogen is an effective supercritical fluid for extraction or drying processes due to its small molecular size, high density in the near-liquid supercritical regime, and chemical inertness. We present a supercritical nitrogen drying protocol for the purification treatment of reactive, porous materials.

Supercritical fluid extraction and drying methods are well established in numerous applications for the synthesis and processing of porous materials. ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

14.7K Views.  Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology. Nitrogen is an effective supercritical fluid for extraction or drying processes due to its small molecular size, high density in the near-liquid supercritical regime, and chemical inertness. We present a supercritical nitrogen drying protocol for the purification treatment of reactive, porous materials.

Video: Supercritical Nitrogen Processing for the Purification of Reactive Porous Materials

Preparing Silica Aerogel Monoliths via a Rapid Supercritical Extraction Method

A procedure for the fabrication of monolithic silica aerogels in eight hours or less via a rapid supercritical extraction process is described. The procedure requires 15-20 min of preparation time, during which a liquid precursor mixture is prepared and poured into wells of a metal mold that is placed between the platens of a hydraulic hot press, followed by several hours of processing within the hot press. The precursor solution consists of a 1.0:12.0:3.6:3.5 x 10-3 molar ratio of tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS):methanol:water:ammonia. In each well of the mold, a porous silica sol-gel matrix forms. As the temperature of the mold and its contents is increased, the pressure within the mold rises. After the temperature/pressure conditions surpass the supercritical point for the solvent within the pores of the matrix (in this case, a methanol/water mixture), the supercritical fluid is released, and monolithic aerogel remains within the wells of the mold. With the mold used in this procedure, cylindrical monoliths of 2.2 cm diameter and 1.9 cm height are produced. Aerogels formed by this rapid method have comparable properties (low bulk and skeletal density, high surface area, mesoporous morphology) to those prepared by other methods that involve either additional reaction steps or solvent extractions (lengthier processes that generate more chemical waste).The rapid supercritical extraction method can also be applied to the fabrication of aerogels based on other precursor recipes.

This article describes a rapid supercritical extraction method for fabricating silica aerogels. By utilizing a confined mold and hydraulic hot press, monolithic aerogels can be made in eight hours or less.

A procedure for the fabrication of monolithic silica aerogels in eight hours or less via a rapid supercritical extraction process is described. The ...

Preparation of Highly Porous Coordination Polymer Coatings on Macroporous Polymer Monoliths for Enhanced Enrichment of Phosphopeptides

We describe a protocol for the preparation of hybrid materials based on highly porous coordination polymer coatings on the internal surface of macroporous polymer monoliths. The developed approach is based on the preparation of a macroporous polymer containing carboxylic acid functional groups and the subsequent step-by-step solution-based controlled growth of a layer of a porous coordination polymer on the surface of the pores of the polymer monolith. The prepared metal-organic polymer hybrid has a high specific micropore surface area. The amount of iron(III) sites is enhanced through metal-organic coordination on the surface of the pores of the functional polymer support. The increase of metal sites is related to the number of iterations of the coating process.
The developed preparation scheme is easily adapted to a capillary column format. The functional porous polymer is prepared as a self-contained single-block porous monolith within the capillary, yielding a flow-through separation device with excellent flow permeability and modest back-pressure. The metal-organic polymer hybrid column showed excellent performance for the enrichment of phosphopeptides from digested proteins and their subsequent detection using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The presented experimental protocol is highly versatile, and can be easily implemented to different organic polymer supports and coatings with a plethora of porous coordination polymers and metal-organic frameworks for multiple purification and/or separation applications.

A procedure for the preparation of porous hybrid separation media composed of a macroporous polymer monolith internally coated by a high surface area microporous coordination polymer is presented.

We describe a protocol for the preparation of hybrid materials based on highly porous coordination polymer coatings on the internal surface of macroporous ...

Procedures of Laboratory Fumigation for Pest Control with Nitric Oxide Gas

Nitric oxide (NO) is a newly discovered fumigant for postharvest pest control. This paper provides detailed protocols for conducting NO fumigation on fresh products and procedures for residue analysis and product quality evaluation. An airtight fumigation chamber containing fresh fruit and vegetables is first flushed with nitrogen (N2) to establish an ultralow oxygen (ULO) environment followed by injection of NO. The fumigation chamber is then kept at a low temperature of 2 - 5 &#176;C for a specified time period necessary to kill a target pest to complete a fumigation treatment. At the end of a fumigation treatment, the fumigation chamber is flushed with N2 to dilute NO prior to opening the chamber to ambient air to prevent the reaction between NO and O2, which produces NO2 and may damage delicate fresh products. At different times after NO fumigation, NO2 in headspace and nitrate and nitrite in liquid samples were measured as residues. Product quality was evaluated after 2 weeks of post-treatment cold storage to determine effects of NO fumigation on product quality. Keeping&#160;O2 from reacting with NO is critical to NO fumigation and is an important part of the protocols. Measuring NO levels is challenging and a practical solution is provided. Possible protocol modifications are also suggested for measuring NO levels in the fumigation chambers as well as residues. NO fumigation has the potential to be a practical alternative to methyl bromide fumigation for postharvest pest control on fresh and stored products. This publication is intended to assist other researchers in conducting NO fumigation research for postharvest pest control and accelerating the development of NO fumigation for practical applications.

This paper describes nitric oxide (NO) fumigation protocols for postharvest pest control. Fumigation chambers are flushed with nitrogen (N2) to establish ultralow oxygen conditions before NO is injected. At the end, chambers are flushed with N2 to dilute NO before exposing products to ambient air to prevent exposure to NO2.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a newly discovered fumigant for postharvest pest control. This paper provides detailed protocols for conducting NO fumigation on ...

Environment

On-line Analysis of Nitrogen Containing Compounds in Complex Hydrocarbon Matrixes

The shift to heavy crude oils and the use of alternative fossil resources such as shale oil are a challenge for the petrochemical industry. The composition of heavy crude oils and shale oils varies substantially depending on the origin of the mixture. In particular they contain an increased amount of nitrogen containing compounds compared to the conventionally used sweet crude oils. As nitrogen compounds have an influence on the operation of thermal processes occurring in coker units and steam crackers, and as some species are considered as environmentally hazardous, a detailed analysis of the reactions involving nitrogen containing compounds under pyrolysis conditions provides valuable information. Therefore a novel method has been developed and validated with a feedstock containing a high nitrogen content, i.e., a shale oil. First, the feed was characterized offline by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC &#215; GC) coupled with a nitrogen chemiluminescence detector (NCD). In a second step the on-line analysis method was developed and tested on a steam cracking pilot plant by feeding pyridine dissolved in heptane. The former being a representative compound for one of the most abundant classes of compounds present in shale oil. The composition of the reactor effluent was determined via an in-house developed automated sampling system followed by immediate injection of the sample on a GC &#215; GC coupled with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF-MS), flame ionization detector (FID) and NCD. A novel method for quantitative analysis of nitrogen containing compounds using NCD and 2-chloropyridine as an internal standard has been developed and demonstrated.

A method combining comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with nitrogen chemiluminescence detection has been developed and applied to on-line analysis of nitrogen containing compounds in a complex hydrocarbon matrix.

The shift to heavy crude oils and the use of alternative fossil resources such as shale oil are a challenge for the petrochemical industry. The ...

Preparation of Biomass-based Mesoporous Carbon with Higher Nitrogen-/Oxygen-chelating Adsorption for Cu(II) Through Microwave Pre-Pyrolysis

An environment-friendly technique for synthesizing biomass-based mesoporous activated carbon with high nitrogen-/oxygen-chelating adsorption for Cu(II) is proposed. Bagasse impregnated with phosphoric acid is utilized as the precursor. To pyrolyze the precursor, two separate heating modes are used: microwave pyrolysis and conventional electric-heating pyrolysis. The resulting bagasse-derived carbon samples are modified with nitrification and reduction modification. Nitrogen (N)/oxygen (O) functional groups are simultaneously introduced to the surface of activated carbon, enhancing its adsorption of Cu(II) by complexing and ion-exchange. Characterization and copper adsorption experiments are performed to investigate the physicochemical properties of four prepared carbon samples and determine which heating method favors the subsequent modification for doping of N/O functional groups. In this technique, based on analyzing data of nitrogen adsorption, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and batch adsorption experiments, it is proven that microwave-pyrolyzed carbon has more defect sites and, therefore, time-saving effective microwave pyrolysis contributes more N/O species to the carbon, although it leads to a lower specific surface area. This technique offers a promising route to synthesis adsorbents with higher nitrogen and oxygen content and a higher adsorption capacity of heavy-metal ions in wastewater remediation applications.

Preparation of Biomass-based Mesoporous Carbon with Higher Nitrogen-/Oxygen-chelating Adsorption for CuII Through Microwave Pre-Pyrolysis

Here, we present a protocol to synthesize nitrogen/oxygen dual-doped mesoporous carbon from biomass by chemical activation in different pyrolysis modes followed by modification. We demonstrate that the microwave pyrolysis benefits the subsequent modification process to simultaneously introduce more nitrogen and oxygen functional groups on the carbon.

An environment-friendly technique for synthesizing biomass-based mesoporous activated carbon with high nitrogen-/oxygen-chelating adsorption for Cu(II) is ...

Measurement of the Potential Rates of Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium Based on 14NH4+/15NH4+ Analyses via Sequential Conversion to N2O

The importance of understanding the fate of nitrate (NO3&#8722;), which is the dominant N species transferred from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems, has been increasing because global nitrogen loads have dramatically increased following industrialization. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) and denitrification are both microbial processes that use NO3&#8722; for respiration. Compared to denitrification, quantitative determinations of the DNRA activity have been carried out only to a limited extent. This has led to an insufficient understanding of the importance of DNRA in NO3&#8722; transformations and the regulating factors of this process. The objective of this paper is to provide a detailed procedure for the measurement of the potential DNRA rate in environmental samples. In brief, the potential DNRA rate can be calculated from the 15N-labeled ammonium (15NH4+) accumulation rate in 15NO3&#8722; added incubation. The determination of the 14NH4+ and 15NH4+ concentrations described in this paper is comprised of the following steps. First, the NH4+ in the sample is extracted and trapped on an acidified glass filter as ammonium salt. Second, the trapped ammonium is eluted and oxidized to NO3&#8722; via persulfate oxidation. Third, the NO3&#8722; is converted to N2O via an N2O reductase deficient denitrifier. Finally, the converted N2O is analyzed using a previously developed quadrupole gas chromatography&#8211;mass spectrometry system. We applied this method to salt marsh sediments and calculated their potential DNRA rates, demonstrating that the proposed procedures allow a simple and more rapid determination compared to previously described methods.

Measurement of the Potential Rates of Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium Based on 14NH4+/15NH4+ Analyses via Sequential Conversion to N2O

A series of methods to determine the potential DNRA rate based on 14NH4+/15NH4+ analyses is provided in detail. NH4+ is converted into N2O via several steps and analyzed using quadrupole gas chromatography&#8211;mass spectrometry.

The importance of understanding the fate of nitrate (NO3&#8722;), which is the dominant N species transferred from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems, has ...

Surface Properties of Synthesized Nanoporous Carbon and Silica Matrices

In this work, we report the synthesis and characterization of ordered nanoporous carbon material (also called ordered mesoporous carbon material [OMC]) with a 4.6 nm pore size, and ordered silica porous matrix, SBA-15, with a 5.3 nm pore size. This work describes the surface properties of nanoporous molecular sieves, their wettability, and the melting behavior of D2O confined in the differently ordered porous materials with similar pore sizes. For this purpose, OMC and SBA-15 with highly ordered nanoporous structures are synthesized via impregnation of the silica matrix by applying a carbon precursor and by the sol-gel method, respectively. The porous structure of investigated systems is characterized by an N2 adsorption-desorption analysis at 77 K. To determine the electrochemical character of the surface of synthesized materials, potentiometric titration measurements are conducted; the obtained results for OMC shows a significant pHpzc shift toward the higher values of pH, relative to SBA-15. This suggests that investigated OMC has surface properties related to oxygen-based functional groups. To describe the surface properties of the materials, the contact angles of liquids penetrating the studied porous beds are also determined. The capillary rise method has confirmed the increased wettability of the silica walls relative to the carbon walls and an influence of the pore roughness on the fluid/wall interactions, which is much more pronounced for silica than for carbon mesopores. We have also studied the melting behavior of D2O confined in OMC and SBA-15 by applying the dielectric method. The results show that the depression of the melting temperature of D2O in the pores of OMC is about 15 K higher relative to the depression of the melting temperature in SBA-15 pores with a comparable 5 nm size. This is caused by the influence of adsorbate/adsorbent interactions of the studied matrices.

Here we report the synthesis and characterization of ordered nanoporous carbon (with a 4.6 nm pore size) and SBA-15 (with a 5.3 nm pore size). The work describes the surface and textural properties of nanoporous molecular sieves, their wettability, and the melting behavior of D2O confined in the materials.

In this work, we report the synthesis and characterization of ordered nanoporous carbon material (also called ordered mesoporous carbon material [OMC]) ...

High-Temperature and High-Pressure In situ Magic Angle Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy represents an important technique to understand the structure and bonding environments of molecules. There exists a drive to characterize materials under conditions relevant to the chemical process of interest. To address this, in situ high-temperature, high-pressure MAS NMR methods have been developed to enable the observation of chemical interactions over a range of pressures (vacuum to several hundred bar) and temperatures (well below 0 &#176;C to 250 &#176;C). Further, the chemical identity of the samples can be comprised of solids, liquids, and gases or mixtures of the three. The method incorporates all-zirconia NMR rotors (sample holder for MAS NMR) which can be sealed using a threaded cap to compress an O-ring. This rotor exhibits great chemical resistance, temperature compatibility, low NMR background, and can withstand high pressures. These combined factors enable it to be utilized in a wide range of system combinations, which in turn permit its use in diverse fields as carbon sequestration, catalysis, material science, geochemistry, and biology. The flexibility of this technique makes it an attractive option for scientists from numerous disciplines.

The molecular structures and dynamics of solids, liquids, gases, and mixtures are of critical interest to diverse scientific fields. High-temperature, high-pressure in situ MAS NMR enables detection of the chemical environment of constituents in mixed phase systems under tightly controlled chemical environments.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy represents an important technique to understand the structure and bonding environments of molecules. There ...

Ammonia Synthesis at Low Pressure

Ammonia can be synthesized at low pressure by the use of an ammonia selective absorbent. The process can be driven with wind energy, available locally in areas requiring ammonia for synthetic fertilizer. Such wind energy is often called &#34;stranded,&#34; because it is only available far from population centers where it can be directly used.
In the proposed low pressure process, nitrogen is made from air using pressure swing absorption, and hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water. While these gases can react at approximately 400 &#176;C in the presence of a promoted conventional catalyst, the conversion is often limited by the reverse reaction, which makes this reaction only feasible at high pressures. This limitation can be removed by absorption on an ammine-like calcium or magnesium chloride. Such alkaline metal halides can effectively remove ammonia, thus suppressing the equilibrium constraints of the reaction. In the proposed absorption-enhanced ammonia synthesis process, the rate of reaction may then be controlled not by the chemical kinetics nor the absorption rates, but by the rate of the recycle of unreacted gases. The results compare favorably with ammonia made from a conventional small scale Haber-Bosch process.

Ammonia can be synthesized at low pressure by using a conventional catalyst and an ammonia selective absorbent.

Ammonia can be synthesized at low pressure by the use of an ammonia selective absorbent. The process can be driven with wind energy, available locally in ...

Bioengineering

Versatile Home-Built Microwave-Assisted System for Peptide Synthesis

An Inexpensive Adaptation of a Commercial Microwave Reactor for Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis

A home-built apparatus to perform solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), assisted by microwave irradiation and heating, is presented. In contrast to conventional SPPS reaction vessels, which drain solvent and byproducts via a frit located at the bottom of the vessel, the presented apparatus employs a gas dispersion tube under vacuum to remove solvent, byproducts, and excess reagents. The same gas dispersion tube supplies nitrogen gas agitation of the SPPS beads during the reaction steps of coupling and deprotection. Microwave heating is beneficial for SPPS couplings of sterically hindered residues, such as alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib), an alpha,alpha-dialkylated amino acid residue. This home-built apparatus has been used to prepare, via manual Fmoc SPPS methods, heptameric and octameric peptides dominated by the Aib residue, which is notoriously difficult to couple under standard room temperature conditions and reagents. Further, typical commercial microwave SPPS reactors are dedicated exclusively to SPPS synthesis rendering them inaccessible to non-SPPS users. In contrast, the presented apparatus preserves the versatility of the microwave reactor for conventional microwave acceleration of chemical reactions, as the apparatus is trivially removed from the commercial microwave reactor.

A simple, inexpensive, and novel apparatus for performing solid phase peptide syntheses in a commercial microwave reactor is presented.

A home-built apparatus to perform solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), assisted by microwave irradiation and heating, is presented. In contrast to ...