Name: psychophysical tracking method to measure taste preferences in children and adults
Uploaded: 2016-07-16T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health (NIH) [grant number R01 DC011287] and NIH postdoctoral training grant (T32-DC00014). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of NIDCD or NIH. The funding agencies had no role in the design and conduct of the study; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the preparation or contents of the manuscript.

This method has been approved by the Office of Regulatory Affairs at the University of Pennsylvania. For the research studies described herein, informed consent was obtained from each adult and informed assent from each child seven years of age or older.
1. General Considerations
<ol>
	<li>Conduct the preference test in a comfortable, private room that ideally has a sink for subjects to expectorate solutions during testing. If a sink is not available, give subjects a cup into which to expectorate.</li>
</ol>
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<ol>
	<li>Desor, J. A., Maller, O., Turner, R. E., Weiffenbach, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Preference for sweet in humans: infants, children and adults. In Taste and development: the genesis of sweet preference. , 161-172 (1977).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Swaiman, K. F., Ashwall, S., Ferriero, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+and+smell.">Taste and smell.</a> Pediatric Neurology: Principles and Practice. , 135-149 (2006).</li><li>Birch, L. L., Anzman-Frasca, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+to+prefer+the+familiar+in+obesogenic+environments.">Learning to prefer the familiar in obesogenic environments.</a> Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 68, 187-196 (2011).</li><li>Drewnowski, A., Rehm, C. 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X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensory+and+consumer+testing+with+children.">Sensory and consumer testing with children.</a> Trends Food Sci Technol. 11 (8), 273-283 (2000).</li><li>Popper, R., Kroll, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conducting+sensory+research+with+children.">Conducting sensory research with children.</a> J Sens Stud. 20 (1), 75-87 (2005).</li><li>Leon, F., Couronne, T., Marcuz, M. C., Koster, E. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+food+liking+in+children:+a+comparison+on+non+verbal+methods.">Measuring food liking in children: a comparison on non verbal methods.</a> Food Qual Prefer. 10 (2), 93-100 (1999).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Lukasewycz, L. D., Griffith, J. W., Beauchamp, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+Monell+forced-choice,+paired-comparison+tracking+procedure+for+determining+sweet+taste+preferences+across+the+lifespan.">Evaluation of the Monell forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking procedure for determining sweet taste preferences across the lifespan.</a> Chem Senses. 36 (4), 345-355 (2011).</li><li>Coldwell, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gustation+assessment+using+the+NIH+Toolbox.">Gustation assessment using the NIH Toolbox.</a> Neurology. 80 (11), 20-24 (2013).</li><li>Beauchamp, G. K., Cowart, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preference+for+high+salt+concentrations+among+children.">Preference for high salt concentrations among children.</a> Dev Psychol. 26 (4), 539-545 (1990).</li><li>Cowart, B. J., Beauchamp, G. K., McBride, R., MacFie, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+development+of+taste+perception.">Early development of taste perception.</a> Psychological Basis of Sensory Evaluation. , 1-17 (1990).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Pepino, M. Y., Reed, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+and+environmental+determinants+of+bitter+perception+and+sweet+preferences.">Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences.</a> Pediatrics. 115 (2), 216-222 (2005).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Pepino, M. Y., Lehmann-Castor, S. M., Yourshaw, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sweet+preferences+and+analgesia+during+childhood:+effects+of+family+history+of+alcoholism+and+depression.">Sweet preferences and analgesia during childhood: effects of family history of alcoholism and depression.</a> Addiction. 105 (4), 666-675 (2010).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Finkbeiner, S., Lipchock, S. V., Hwang, L. D., Reed, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preferences+for+salty+and+sweet+tastes+are+elevated+and+related+to+each+other+during+childhood.">Preferences for salty and sweet tastes are elevated and related to each other during childhood.</a> PLoS One. 9 (3), e92201 (2014).</li><li>Kim, J. Y., Prescott, J., Kim, K. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+sweet+liking+in+sucrose+solutions+and+beverages.">Patterns of sweet liking in sucrose solutions and beverages.</a> Food Qual Prefer. 36, 96-103 (2014).</li><li>Pepino, M. Y., Mennella, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+contributing+to+individual+differences+in+sucrose+preference.">Factors contributing to individual differences in sucrose preference.</a> Chem Senses. 30, 319-320 (2005).</li><li>Mennella, J. A., Finkbeiner, S., Reed, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+proof+is+in+the+pudding:+children+prefer+lower+fat+but+higher+sugar+than+do+mothers.">The proof is in the pudding: children prefer lower fat but higher sugar than do mothers.</a> Int J Obes (Lond). 36 (10), 1285-1291 (2012).</li><li>Pepino, M. Y., Mennella, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+cigarette+smoking+and+family+history+of+alcoholism+on+sweet+taste+perception+and+food+cravings+in+women.">Effects of cigarette smoking and family history of alcoholism on sweet taste perception and food cravings in women.</a> Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 31 (11), 1891-1899 (2007).</li><li>Schmidt, H. J., Beauchamp, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adult-like+odor+preferences+and+aversions+in+three-year-old+children.">Adult-like odor preferences and aversions in three-year-old children.</a> Child Dev. 59 (4), 1136-1143 (1988).</li><li>Temple, E. C., Hutchinson, I., Laing, D. G., Jinks, A. 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The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking technique detailed here has been consistently used to determine sweet taste preference among nearly 2,000 racially and ethnically diverse subjects as young as 5 years of age. The preference test, which for children is embedded within the context of a game, is sensitive to the cognitive limitations of children and is a much-needed method to fill the gap in age-appropriate psychophysical research methods for pediatric populations. If completed as described, w...

The sense of taste controls one of the most important decisions we make: whether to eat something or not. From birth, humans show a strong liking for sweet taste1-it attracts the newborn to mother&#39;s milk and signals the presence of calories from nutrient-dense foods (e.g., fruits)2. Although this inborn trait confers an advantage for survival in an environment of scarcity, an individual&#39;s liking for sweet coupled with a food environment that supplies sugar in abundance has resulted in overconsumption of sweetened foods3. Current estimates suggest that 13.1-17.5% of children&#39;s and 11.2-14.5% of adults&#39; total energy intake is derived from added sugars4; in both cases, levels are well above national and international dietary recommendations5,6.
Despite the importance of taste in determining food choice and intake, and the association between diet and health, methodologies to accurately assess taste hedonics are limited, particularly for use with pediatric populations7-9. One of the methods most commonly used with children is hedonic category scaling10-12, which involves choosing a response from a series of discrete alternatives that signify increasing preference. These alternatives are often depicted with smiley faces10 or with verbal descriptors ranging from &#34;super bad&#34; to &#34;super good&#34;13, and are useful for determining whether a child likes the taste of a stimulus or not. Ranking procedures, in which a subject is required to order several choices by how well they are liked (e.g., from most to least liked), are also frequently used and are intended to convey information on relative liking of stimuli13,14. Although both methods provide valuable information on two separate dimensions of hedonic response, neither directly assesses taste preference, specifically the concentration of a stimulus perceived to be of optimal palatability. The method described herein was specifically developed to determine an individual&#39;s most preferred level of a tastant through direct comparisons of pairs of stimuli of varying concentrations, bypassing the need to infer preference from ratings of stimuli evaluated individually in a sequential monadic manner, as is often practiced in psychophysical testing.
Here, we detail the protocol for the Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking technique for determining sweet taste preferences15,16. The method was first developed for measuring salt preference17,18. It was later modified for measuring sucrose preference19,20, tested for measures of both reliability and validity15, and selected for the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Assessment for Neurological and Behavioral Function as the method of choice to assess children&#39;s sweet taste preference for clinical, epidemiological, and longitudinal studies16. The method, which typically takes no more than 15 min to complete, has been used to measure the most preferred level of sucrose among hundreds of children, adolescents, and adults15,19-25. In a study of 949 subjects, only 5% of the 356 children tested were unable to complete both series of the sweet preference test due to unfocused behavior or failure to understand the task15, highlighting the appropriateness of the method for pediatric populations.
In brief, following a 1-hr fast, consenting subjects are presented with pairs of sucrose solutions of varying concentrations (3-36%) in a two-series test, with the lower concentration presented in the first position in each pair in the first series. Subjects taste the pair of solutions and are instructed to point to the solution they prefer. Subsequent pairs of solutions are presented based on the subject&#39;s preferred concentration in the previous pair. The test continues until the subject selects the same sucrose concentration twice relative to both a lower and a higher concentration, or until the subject selects the lowest (3%) or highest (36%) concentration twice consecutively. The protocol is then repeated in reverse order, with higher concentrations presented in the first position in each pair. On average, the method requires 7 presentations of solution pairs16.
The described method is particularly effective for use with children because it accounts for several methodological concerns often overlooked in other psychophysical tests: (1) the method is short in duration and does not require a sustained attention span; (2) the two-series protocol in which solution concentrations are counterbalanced between the series controls for position bias; (3) the forced-choice procedure circumvents children&#39;s inclination to answer questions in the affirmative26; (4) use of a whole-mouth instead of a regional-tasting protocol accounts for age-related differences in the growth and size of the tongue27; and (5) instructing children to point to their most preferred concentration of sucrose addresses potential cognitive limitations by eliminating the need for a verbal response19.
Since its development, the Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking technique has revealed consistent differences in sweet taste preference as a function of age15,28 , race/ethnicity15,23, taste receptor genotype19,24, family history of alcoholism20,25, and depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations20. In addition, sweet taste preference as measured by this method is associated with preference for sugar in foods and beverages15,19,21,22, providing evidence of criterion-related validity and a measure of insight into the association between an individual&#39;s sweet preference and their dietary sugar intake.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical Mfg Corp</td>
			<td>SU103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning Pyrex 1000 ml Class A Volumetric Flask</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical Mfg Corp</td>
			<td>988-24433</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boston Round 1000 ml Amber Glass Bottle</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical Mfg Corp</td>
			<td>842-17040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boston Round 125 ml Amber Glass Bottle</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical Mfg Corp</td>
			<td>842-17031</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heathrow Scientific Multi-Function Stopwatch</td>
			<td>Spectrum Chemical Mfg Corp</td>
			<td>140-75046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>McKesson Medi-Pack Medicine Cups</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>46941200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solo drinking cups</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>SCCP16RLR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

psychophysical tracking method to measure taste preferences in children and adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Figure 2 contains the tracking grid results from one representative subject. This subject&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose, 4.2% w/v, was determined by calculating the geometric mean of the sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 (6% w/v) and Series 2 (3% w/v). In cases where the subject only completes one of the series, the geometric mean obviously cannot be calculated. Further analysis can focus on data obtained from Series 1 separately from Series 215...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults at JoVE.com

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

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