This research was supported by the "Development of technologies for safety evaluation and standardization of nanomaterials and nanoproducts" (10059135)" through the Korea Evaluation Institute of Industrial Technology by the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry &amp; Energy.

1. Preparation of Instruments and Specimens
<ol>
	<li>Abrasor
	<ol>
		<li>Based on an abrasion tester, use an abrasor with one specimen rotation stage (140 mm diameter), two abrasion wheel holders, and a rotation speed of 30 - 80 rpm.</li>
		<li>Use a weight to secure the abrasion wheel to the abrasion wheel holder, which also applies load to the test specimen.</li>
		<li>Install an additional air inlet to provide better suspension for the abrased particles, as shown in Figure 3. Use a 1/8&#34;-diameter tube located 15 mm above and 40 mm away from the center of the test specimen.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Abrasion wheel
	<ol>
		<li>Wrap the abrasion wheel (55 mm diameter, 13 mm thick) with sand paper (100 grit and brand new).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Specimen
	<ol>
		<li>Specimen is a composite containing nanomaterial for abrasion test. To installed at abrasor, the specimen should be prepared with 140 mm diameter.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Chamber
	<ol>
		<li>Use stainless steel for the chamber walls to avoid particle deposition due to electrostatic force. Place the abrasor inside the chamber (volume 1 m3) (Table 1), and locate the air inlet and outlet in the upper and lower part of the chamber, respectively. Use a mixer, consisting of three perforated plates, at the air outlet to achieve a uniformly mixed particle flow.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Neutralizer
	<ol>
		<li>As electro-statically charged particles enhance particle deposition on the chamber walls, use a neutralizer (soft X-ray ionizer) to minimize the charged state of the particles.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Online measuring instruments 12, 13
	<ol>
		<li>Use a CPC and OPC to measure the particle number concentration and particle size distribution as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions.</li>
		<li>Install the CPC and OPC at the outlet of the chamber to measure the particle number concentration and particle size distribution.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Particle sampling instruments
	<ol>
		<li>Sample the released particles using a particle sampler containing filter media or a TEM grid to analyze the particle morphology and components.</li>
		<li>Install the particle sampler containing filter media or a TEM grid at the outlet of the chamber to analyze the morphology of the release particles.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Abrasion Test for Nanoparticle Release Using Chamber System
NOTE: The abrasion test conditions are described in Table 2.
<ol>
	<li>Locate the abrasor in the center of the chamber.</li>
	<li>Install the test specimen on the specimen rotation stage of the abrasor.</li>
	<li>Secure the abrasion wheels in the abrasion wheel holders with a 1,000 g weight to apply load to the test specimen.</li>
	<li>Locate the neutralizer (soft X-ray ionizer) 28 cm away from the center of the test specimen at a 45&#176; angle, as seen in Figure 2, to reduce the electro-static particle deposition on the chamber walls. 
	NOTE: The neutralizer removes the electrostatic force by beam exposure. However, since the air inlet and abrasion wheels are located above the specimen rotation stage, this restricts the access of the neutralizer beam to the surface of the test specimen. Therefore, the neutralizer is located diagonally to allow the beam to reach as much of the specimen surface as possible.</li>
	<li>Operate the blower installed at the outlet of the chamber at a 50 L/min flow rate.</li>
	<li>Supply 25 L/min additional particle-free suspension air using an air compressor through the additional air inlet. 
	NOTE: The particles, which are generated by abrasion, were deposited on surface of the specimen and abrasion wheels, strongly. Therefore, it is hard to measure the abrased particles. The additional air inlet can help to solve this problem to particle suspension.</li>
	<li>Check the background particle number concentration inside the chamber to reach an average particle number concentration for 1 h of below 1 #/cc using CPC, as described in Figure 4.</li>
	<li>Operate the specimen rotation stage of the abrasor using a step motor that rotates the specimen rotation stage at 72 rpm with 1,000 rotations.</li>
	<li>Measure and record the released particle number concentration and particle size distribution using the CPC and OPC. 
	NOTE: The particles released from the nanocomposites are suspended and carried by the air that is being pumped. These suspended particles are eventually transported to the outlet following the airstream. The released particles are then detected by the CPC and OPC at the outlet of the chamber. A CPC and OPC are most frequently used for measuring the particle number concentration, while an OPC can also measure the particle size distribution.</li>
	<li>Sample the released particles using a particle sampler containing filter media or a TEM grid. 
	NOTE: The particles released from nanocomposites by abrasion move to the outlet of the chamber following the airstream. At the outlet of the chamber, the released particles can be sampled using a particle sampler. The released particles collected on filter media or a TEM grid can then be analyzed using TEM or SEM (scanning electron microscopy).</li>
	<li>Stop the measurement and sampling when the particle number concentration reaches below 0.1% of the peak particle number concentration.</li>
	<li>Save the all data (CPC, OPC) and remove all the samples (test specimens).</li>
	<li>Use a new specimen and new abrasion wheels for each test, and wash the chamber and abrasor with kimwipes and IPA (iso-propyl alcohol) after each abrasion test to confirm repeatability.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Froggett, S. J., Clancy, S. F., Boverhof, D. R., Canady, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+and+perspectives+of+existing+research+on+the+release+of+nanomaterials+from+solid+nanocomposites.">A review and perspectives of existing research on the release of nanomaterials from solid nanocomposites.</a> Part Fibre Toxicol. 11, (2014).</li><li>Kingston, C., Zepp, R., Andrady, A., Boverhof, D., Fehir, R., Hawkins, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Release+characteristics+of+selected+carbon+nanotube+polymer+composites.">Release characteristics of selected carbon nanotube polymer composites.</a> Carbon. 68, 33-57 (2014).</li><li>Kaiser, D., Stefaniak, A., Scott, K., Nguyen, T., Schutz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Methods for the Measurement of Release of MWCNTs from MWCNT-Polymer Composites, NIST. , (2014).</li><li>Nowack, B., David, R. M., Fissan, H., Morris, H., Shatkin, J. A., Stintz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potential+release+scenarios+for+carbon+nanotubes+used+in+composites.">Potential release scenarios for carbon nanotubes used in composites.</a> Environ. Int. 59, 1-11 (2013).</li><li>Kim, E., Lee, J. H., Kim, J. K., Lee, G. H., Ahn, K., Park, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Case+Study+on+Risk+Evaluation+of+Silver+Nanoparticle+Exposure+from+Antibacterial+Sprays+Containing+Silver+Nanoparticles.">Case Study on Risk Evaluation of Silver Nanoparticle Exposure from Antibacterial Sprays Containing Silver Nanoparticles.</a> J of Nanomaterial. , 346586 (2015).</li><li>Kim, E., Lee, J. H., Kim, J. K., Lee, G. H., Ahn, K., Park, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Case+study+on+risk+evaluation+of+printed+electronics+using+nanosilver+ink.">Case study on risk evaluation of printed electronics using nanosilver ink.</a> Nano Convergence. , (2016).</li><li>Vorbau, M., Hillemann, L., Stintz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+for+the+characterization+of+the+abrasion+induced+nanoparticle+release+into+air+from+surface+coatings.">Method for the characterization of the abrasion induced nanoparticle release into air from surface coatings.</a> J. Aerosol Sci. 40, 209-217 (2009).</li><li>Golanski, L., Gaborieau, A., Guiot, A., Uzu, G., Chatenet, J., Tardif, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+abrasion-induced+nanoparticle+release+from+paints+into+liquids+and+air.">Characterization of abrasion-induced nanoparticle release from paints into liquids and air.</a> J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 304, 012062 (2011).</li><li>Wohlleben, W., Brill, S., Meier, M. W., Mertler, M., Cox, G., Hirth, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+lifecycle+of+nanocomposites:+Comparing+released+fragments+and+their+in-vivo+hazards+from+three+release+mechanisms+and+four+nanocomposites.">On the lifecycle of nanocomposites: Comparing released fragments and their in-vivo hazards from three release mechanisms and four nanocomposites.</a> Small. 7, 2384-2395 (2011).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> ISO 7784-1, Paints and varnishes -- Determination of resistance to abrasion -- Part 1: Rotating abrasive-paper-covered wheel method. , (1997).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> ISO 5470-1, Rubber- or plastics-coated fabrics -- Determination of abrasion resistance -- Part 1: Taber abrader. , (1999).</li><li>Schlagenhauf, L., Chu, B. T. T., Buha, J., N&#252;sch, F., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Release+of+carbon+nanotubes+from+an+epoxy-based+nanocomposites+during+an+abrasion+process.">Release of carbon nanotubes from an epoxy-based nanocomposites during an abrasion process.</a> Enviorn. Sci. Tech. 46, 7366-7372 (2012).</li><li>Bello, D., Wardle, B. L., Yamamoto, N., deVilloria, R. G., Garcia, E. J., Hart, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exposure+to+nanoscale+particles+and+fibers+during+machining+of+hybrid+advanced+composites+containing+carbon+nanotubes.">Exposure to nanoscale particles and fibers during machining of hybrid advanced composites containing carbon nanotubes.</a> J. Nanopart. Res. 11, 231-249 (2009).</li><li>Cena, L. G., Peters, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+and+control+of+airborne+particles+emitted+during+production+of+epoxy/carbon+nanotube+nanocomposites.">Characterization and control of airborne particles emitted during production of epoxy/carbon nanotube nanocomposites.</a> J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 8, 86-92 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The most critical steps when conducting the nanorelease test from nanocomposite materials using an abrasion test were: 1) using a chamber system made of stainless steel with a neutralizer to remove the electrostatic charge generated by abrasion and reduce the deposition of particles on the chamber walls; 2) supplying additional air to provide better particle suspension; and 3) sampling the released particles and online monitoring using a CPC and OPC from the outlet that contained a mixer consisting of three perforated plates.
The abrasion tester was originally designed to evaluate abrasion resistance based on ISO 7784-1 or ISO 5470-1 14-15. Abrasion testers are now widely used to simulate sanding processes and study the abrasion resistances of materials and coatings, and such abrasion methods have been modified to examine the nanoparticle release from nanocomposite materials 9-11. An abrasion test is also one of the simulation approaches included in the EU NanoReg 2. However, conducting an abrasion test for nanocomposite materials requires a consistent nanoparticle release, which is difficult due to particle charging as a result of abrasion and when the particle sampling is conducted near the emission point. Therefore, the proposed chamber setting for an abrasion test solves these problems by neutralizing the particles and sampling down-stream of the chamber outlet containing a mixer, thereby achieving a consistent particle release from nanocomposite specimens.
Several attempts have already been made to identify free CNTs released from nanocomposite materials. For example, epoxy-based nanocomposites containing CNTs have been tested for the release of carbon nanotubes using an abrasion process. As a result, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observation indicated the emission of free-standing individual CNTs and agglomerates during abrasion 16. In contrast, no free or bundled CNTs were observed in electron microscopic examinations of two different hybrid CNT composites (CNT-carbon composite and CNT-alumina composite) during a machining process, such as dry and wet band-sawing and rotary cutting 17. Meanwhile, another CNT-epoxy nanocomposite study showed that the particles generated during sanding were mostly micron-sized particles with protruding CNTs and no free CNTs 18. The current study of nanocomposite abrasion also found no generation of free CNTs when evaluated by extensive electron microscopy. Notwithstanding, the emitted CNT structures will differ depending on many factors, such as the mechanical process, method of manufacturing the nanocomposite, variety of CNT and CNT content in the composite, and resin.
A chamber system has already been used to evaluate the nanorelease from other products containing nanomaterials. For example, to evaluate the risk of silver nanoparticle exposure from antibacterial sprays containing silver nanoparticles, a chamber was successfully used to simulate exposure to silver nanoparticles 7. Plus, to overcome the difficulties involved with conducting exposure assessment studies in the workplace, simulation studies have been conducted in a chamber to evaluate the extent of silver nanoparticle exposure when working with printed electronic devices using nanosilver ink. In this case, a chamber system containing a printed electronic device and all the sampling instruments described in this paper were shown to be effective for simulation silver nanoparticle exposure evaluation studies 8. Thus, the proposed chamber method protocol is not only limited to abrasion tests, but can also be applied to other simulation studies to identify nanoparticle release from consumer products containing nanomaterials or nanocomposites.
Therefore, when taken together, the proposed protocol using a chamber system can be used to evaluate the safety of consumer products containing nanomaterials by simulating the handling and manufacturing processes of many products containing nanomaterials. In particular, the consistent results from the proposed chamber system in terms of particle release from products will contribute to evaluating the risk of exposure to nanomaterials released from products. The future intention is to standardize this protocol with extended application to other nanocomposites or consumer products containing nanomaterials in order to characterize human and environmental exposure through the nanomaterial life-cycle and provide a tool for risk assessment.

Nanomaterial exposure has mostly been studied in relation to workers in workplaces manufacturing, handling, fabricating, and packaging nanomaterials, while consumer exposure has not been studied extensively. A recent analysis of the environmental and health literature database created by the International Council of Nanotechnology (ICON) also indicated that most nanomaterial safety research has focused on hazards (83%) and potential exposure (16%), with the release from nanocomposites, representing consumer exposure, only representing 0.8% 1. Thus, very little is known about consumer exposure to nanomaterials.
Nanoparticle release has been used to estimate consumer exposure in simulation studies, including the abrasion and weathering of nanocomposites, washing textiles, or dustiness testing methods, such as the rotating drum method, vortex shaking method, and other shaker methods 2-3. Plus, several international attempts, such as the ILSI (International Life Science Institute) nanorelease and EU NanoReg, have been made to develop technology to understand the release of nanomaterials used in consumer products. The ILSI nanorelease consumer product launched in 2011 represents a life-cycle approach to nanomaterial release from consumer products, where phase 1 involves nanomaterial selection, phase 2 covers evaluation methods, and phase 3 implements interlaboratory studies. Several monographs and publications on the safety of nanomaterials in consumer products have also been published 4-6.
Meanwhile, NanoReg represents a common European approach to the regulatory testing of manufactured nanomaterials and provides a program of methods for use in simulation approaches to nanorelease from consumer products 2. ISO TC 229 is also trying to develop standards relevant to consumer safety and submit a new working item proposal for consumer safety. The OECD WPMN (working party on nanomaterials), especially SG8 (steering group on exposure assessment and exposure mitigation), recently conducted a survey on the direction of future work, especially consumer and environmental exposure assessment. Therefore, in light of these international activities, the Korean Ministries of Trade, Industry and Energy launched a tiered project in 2013 focused on the &#34;Development of technologies for the safety evaluation and standardization of nanomaterials and nanoproducts&#34;. Plus, several consumer safety-relevant studies to standardize nanomaterial release from consumer products have also been published 7-8.
An abrasion test is one of the simulation approaches included in the ILSI nanorelease and NanoReg 2-3 for determining the potential emission level of nanoparticles from different commercial composite products. The mass weight loss is deduced based on the difference in the specimen weight before and after abrasion using an abrasor. The nanocomposite sample is abraded at a constant speed, a sampler sucks up the aerosol, and the particles are then analyzed using particle counting devices, such as a Condensation Particle Counter (CPC) or optical particle counter (OPC), and collected on a TEM (transmission electron microscopy) grid or membrane for further visual analysis. However, conducting an abrasion test for nanocomposite materials requires a consistent nanoparticle release, which is difficult due to particle charging as a result of abrasion and when the particle sampling is conducted near the emission point 2-3, 9-11.
Accordingly, this paper presents a chamber system as a new method for evaluating nanomaterial release in the case of abrasion of nanocomposite materials. When compared with other abrasion and simulation tests, the proposed chamber system provides consistent nanoparticle release data in the case of abrasion. Moreover, this new test method has been used widely in the field of indoor air quality and semi-conduct industry as total particle number counting method 12, 13. Therefore, it is anticipated that the proposed method can be developed into a standardized method for testing nanoparticle release from consumer products containing nanomaterials.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Foamex</td>
			<td>Taeyoung, R. of Korea</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MWCNT (multiwalled carbon nanotube) composite</td>
			<td>Hanwha, Incheon, R. of Korea</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>2% MWCNTs in low density polyethylene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Abrasion Paper</td>
			<td>Derfos, R. of Korea</td>
			<td>#100</td>
			<td>100 grit sand paper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Condensation Particle Counter (CPC)</td>
			<td>TSI Inc, Shoreview, MN</td>
			<td>UCPC 3775</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical Paritcle Counter (OPC)</td>
			<td>Grimm, Ainring, Germany</td>
			<td>1.109</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Particle Sampler</td>
			<td>Ecomesure, Saclay, France</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quantifoil Holey Carbon Film</td>
			<td>TED PELLA Inc. USA</td>
			<td>1.2/1.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter Holder</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>custom made</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polycarbonate Filter&#160;</td>
			<td>Millipore, USA</td>
			<td>CAT No. GTTP02500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soft X-ray Ionizer (Neutralizer)</td>
			<td>SUNJE, R. of Korea</td>
			<td>SXN-05U</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM)</td>
			<td>Hitachi</td>
			<td>S-4300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

testing of nanoparticle release from a composite containing nanomaterial using a chamber system

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products containing nanomaterials is also increasing. Evaluating the nanomaterial release from products containing nanomaterials is a crucial step in assessing the safety of these products, and has resulted in several international efforts to develop consistent and reliable technologies for standardizing the evaluation of nanomaterial release. In this study, the release of nanomaterials from products containing nanomaterials is evaluated using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, optical particle counter, and sampling ports to collect filter samples for electron microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system is tested using an abrasor and disc-type nanocomposite material specimens to determine whether the nanomaterial release is repeatable and consistent within an acceptable range. The test results indicate that the total number of particles in each test is within 20% from the average after several trials. The release trends are similar and they show very good repeatability. Therefore, the proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing of products containing nanomaterials.

Abrasion Test Repeatability Using Chamber System
The total particle numbers were consistent for 8 abrasion tests, as shown in Table 3. The CPC measured an average of 3.67 x109 particles, while the OPC counted an average of 1.98 x 109 particles (&#62; 0.3 &#181;m). The deviations were within 20%, which represented a consistent release of particles during abrasion.
Nanorelease from Nanocomposite
As shown in Figure 5, Nanocomposites containing CNTs (carbon nanotubes) 0% and 2% showed a circle 40 mm away from the center after abrasion. After abrasion, the original test specimens lost approximately 0.6 g (1.56%) (Table 4). The nanocomposite containing CNTs released 12.6% more particles than the control composite, as shown in Table 5. Several micrometer particles were sampled on the filter, while a TEM grid was used to sample the nanoscale particles. Most of the particles were torn particles due to abrasion, and FE-SEM (field emission scanning electron microscopy) revealed no free CNT structures from the nanocomposite containing 2% CNTs in the filter samples (Figure 6) or mini particle sampler samples after abrasion (Figure 7).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Nanorelease test chamber configuration. This figure shows the configuration of the abrasion test chamber system, and the chamber specifications are presented in Table 1. To provide particle-free air to the chamber, a charcoal filter was inserted in the air inlet to inflow sheath air, while a mixer, consisting of three perforated plates, was installed in the outlet to achieve a uniformly mixed particle flow. For air circulation in the chamber, an orifice flow meter and blower were installed at the end of the outlet. A condensation particle counter (CPC) and optical particle counter (OPC) were installed downstream of the mixer to measure the particle number concentration and particle size distribution. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Placement of neutralizer and abrasor. Particles generated by the friction of two different materials will be highly charged. Thus, to reduce the charged particles, a neutralizer (soft X-ray ionizer) was installed. The specifications of the neutralizer are presented in Supplement 1. The neutralizer (soft X-ray ionizer) was located 28 cm away from the center of the test specimen at an angle of 45&#176;. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Configuration of additional air inlet: (a) front view (b) top view. For the abrasion test, the abrasor was located in the center of the chamber. To provide better suspension for the abrased particles released from the test specimen, an additional air flow was supplied using a 1/8&#34; tube located 15 mm above and 40 mm away from the center of the test specimen. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Abrasion test procedure. Before the main experiment, the instruments and test specimens were prepared. The chamber background values, such as the VOC, ozone, and dust, were checked, and then the abrasor with the test specimen and neutralizer were placed in the chamber. For the main test, a zero check was performed in the standby phase by starting and stopping the abrasion. Sampling was performed throughout the abrasion test. After removing the test specimen, the chamber was prepared for the next specimen test. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Typical change in particle number concentration during abrasion test. (a) Neutralizer off; (b) neutralizer on. This figure shows the typical change in the particle number concentration during the abrasion test. During abrasion, the particle number concentration increased, whereas after abrasion, the particle number concentration decreased. (a) is the neutralizer-off condition, and (b) is neutralizer-on condition. At the neutralizer-on condition, particle number concentration was higher than the off condition. This is because the neutralizer can decrease the particle wall loss by minimize the charged state of the particles. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6. Nanocomposites containing 0% CNTs and 2% CNTs. (a &#38; b) Not containing CNTs; (c &#38; d) containing CNTs; (a &#38; c) before abrasion; (b &#38; d) after abrasion. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7. Particles sampled on filter media. The particles released from the composite by abrasion were sampled on the filter and analyzed by FE-SEM. Most of the particles were torn particles due to abrasion, and no free CNT structures were observed. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8. Particles sampled on TEM grid. The particles released from the nanocomposite by abrasion were sampled on the TEM grid and analyzed by FE-SEM. Most of the particles were torn particles due to abrasion, and no free CNT structures were observed. <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54449/54449fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimensions</td>
			<td>1,000 mm x 1,000 mm x 1,000 mm (1 m3), Stainless steel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blower (with HEPA filter)</td>
			<td>200 mm x 200 mm x 200 mm, 909 W</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure sensor</td>
			<td>Magnehelic, 0 ~ 100 mmH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter (chamber inlet)</td>
			<td>320 mm x 320 mm x 400 mm, HEPA filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Charcoal (chamber inlet)</td>
			<td>Dia. 90 mm x 260 mm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1. Chamber specifications for abrasion test. HEPA, high efficiency particulate air.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chamber</td>
			<td>Ventilation</td>
			<td>50 lpm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="4">Abrasor</td>
			<td>Test specimen</td>
			<td>&#8960;140 mm, 3 mm thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Abrasion wheels</td>
			<td>Sand Paper (100 grit) (brand new)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotation</td>
			<td>72 rpm, 1,000 rotations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Additional air flow rate (for particle suspension)</td>
			<td>25 lpm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neutralizer (soft X-ray ionizer)</td>
			<td>Location</td>
			<td>45 degrees, 28 cm (from center of test specimen)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2. Abrasion test conditions. lpm, liter per min; rpm, revolutions per min.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="5">A. CPC (Condensation Particle Counter)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="4">Total particle number [#/cc]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data (x109)</td>
			<td>Mean &#177; SD (x109)</td>
			<td>+20% (x109)</td>
			<td>-20% (x109)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #1</td>
			<td>2.86&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="8">3.67 &#177; 0.7</td>
			<td rowspan="8">4.40</td>
			<td rowspan="8">2.94</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #2</td>
			<td>2.61</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #3</td>
			<td>3.50</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #4</td>
			<td>4.25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #5</td>
			<td>3.87</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #6</td>
			<td>4.66</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #7</td>
			<td>3.47</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #8</td>
			<td>4.17</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="5"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="5">B. OPC (Optical Particle Counter)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="4">Total particle number [#/cc]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data (x109)</td>
			<td>Mean &#177; SD (x109)</td>
			<td>+20% (x109)</td>
			<td>-20% (x109)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #1</td>
			<td>1.56</td>
			<td rowspan="8">1.98 &#177; 0.28</td>
			<td rowspan="8">2.38</td>
			<td rowspan="8">1.58</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #2</td>
			<td>1.81</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #3</td>
			<td>1.82</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #4</td>
			<td>2.12</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #5</td>
			<td>2.05</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #6</td>
			<td>2.47</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #7</td>
			<td>1.86</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test #8</td>
			<td>2.15</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 3. Total particle number measured using CPC and OPC in 8 abrasion tests. The data are presented as mean and standard deviation of 8 tests.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Before (g)</td>
			<td>After (g)</td>
			<td>Weight loss (g) = Before - After</td>
			<td>Weight loss, %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNT (0%)</td>
			<td>38.6074</td>
			<td>38.0032</td>
			<td>0.6042</td>
			<td>1.56</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNT (2%)</td>
			<td>39.5159</td>
			<td>38.9001</td>
			<td>0.6158</td>
			<td>1.56</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 4. Weight changes for nanocomposite specimens containing CNTs before and after abrasion.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td colspan="2">Total particle number (#/cc)</td>
			<td colspan="2">Difference (#/cc) = (# of particle CNT 2%) - (# of particle CNT 0%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>CPC (x 106)</td>
			<td>OPC (x 106)</td>
			<td>CPC (x 106)</td>
			<td>OPC (x 105)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNT (0%)</td>
			<td>8.74</td>
			<td>8.37</td>
			<td rowspan="2">1.26 
			(12.6%)</td>
			<td rowspan="2">1.6 
			(1.9%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNT (2%)</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>8.53</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 5. Total particle number released from nanocomposites after abrasion test.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System at JoVE.com

Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System

Nanoparticle release is tested using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, an optical particle counter and sampling ports to collect filter samples for microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing with a repeatable and consistent data range.

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products ...

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Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

6.7K Views.  Hanyang University. Nanoparticle release is tested using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, an optical particle counter and sampling ports to collect filter samples for microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing with a repeatable and consistent data range.

Video: Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System

Characterization of Recombination Effects in a Liquid Ionization Chamber Used for the Dosimetry of a Radiosurgical Accelerator

Most modern radiation therapy devices allow the use of very small fields, either through beamlets in Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) or via stereotactic radiotherapy where positioning accuracy allows delivering very high doses per fraction in a small volume of the patient. Dosimetric measurements on medical accelerators are conventionally realized using air-filled ionization chambers. However, in small beams these are subject to nonnegligible perturbation effects. This study focuses on liquid ionization chambers, which offer advantages in terms of spatial resolution and low fluence perturbation. Ion recombination effects are investigated for the microLion detector (PTW) used with the Cyberknife system (Accuray). The method consists of performing a series of water tank measurements at different source-surface distances, and applying corrections to the liquid detector readings based on simultaneous gaseous detector measurements. This approach facilitates isolating the recombination effects arising from the high density of the liquid sensitive medium and obtaining correction factors to apply to the detector readings. The main difficulty resides in achieving a sufficient level of accuracy in the setup to be able to detect small changes in the chamber response.

A growing number of radiation therapy devices offer the advantage of delivering the dose through very small beams to the tumor, allowing for increased conformity and higher doses per fraction. Many different detectors can be used for the dosimetry of these small fields. In the present study, the effect of ion recombination is investigated for a liquid ionization chamber using a stereotactic radiation therapy system.

Most modern radiation therapy devices allow the use of very small fields, either through beamlets in Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) or via ...

Visible-light Induced Reduction of Graphene Oxide Using Plasmonic Nanoparticle

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using visible light irradiation with plasmonic nanoparticles. The plasmonic nanoparticle is used to improve the reduction efficiency of GO. It only takes 30 min&#160;at RT by illuminating the solutions with Xe-lamp, the r-GO solutions can be obtained by completely removing gold nanoparticles through simple centrifugation step. The spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as compared to the other nanostructures is the most suitable plasmonic nanostructure for r-GO preparation. The reduced graphene oxide prepared using visible light and AuNPs was equally qualitative as chemically reduced graphene oxide, which was supported by various analytical techniques such as UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, powder XRD and XPS. The reduced graphene oxide prepared with visible light shows excellent quenching properties over the fluorescent molecules modified on ssDNA and excellent fluorescence recovery for target DNA detection. The r-GO prepared by recycled AuNPs is found to be of same quality with that of chemically reduced r-GO. The use of visible light with plasmonic nanoparticle demonstrates the good alternative method for r-GO synthesis.

A simple protocol for the preparation of reduced graphene oxide using visible light and plasmonic nanoparticle is described.

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using ...

Measurement of Scattering Nonlinearities from a Single Plasmonic Nanoparticle

Plasmonics, which are based on the collective oscillation of electrons due to light excitation, involve strongly enhanced local electric fields and thus have potential applications in nonlinear optics, which requires extraordinary optical intensity. One of the most studied nonlinearities in plasmonics is nonlinear absorption, including saturation and reverse saturation behaviors. Although scattering and absorption in nanoparticles are closely correlated by the Mie theory, there has been no report of nonlinearities in plasmonic scattering until very recently. 
Last year, not only saturation, but also reverse saturation of scattering in an isolated plasmonic particle was demonstrated for the first time. The results showed that saturable scattering exhibits clear wavelength dependence, which seems to be directly linked to the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). Combined with the intensity-dependent measurements, the results suggest the possibility of a common mechanism underlying the nonlinear behaviors of scattering and absorption. These nonlinearities of scattering from a single gold nanosphere (GNS) are widely applicable, including in super-resolution microscopy and optical switches. 
In this paper, it is described in detail how to measure nonlinearity of scattering in a single GNP and how to employ the super-resolution technique to enhance the optical imaging resolution based on saturable scattering. This discovery features the first super-resolution microscopy based on nonlinear scattering, which is a novel non-bleaching contrast method that can achieve a resolution as low as l/8 and will potentially be useful in biomedicine and material studies.

Saturable and reverse saturable scattering were discovered in isolated plasmonic particles and adopted as a novel non-bleaching contrast method in super-resolution microscopy. Here the experimental procedures of detecting and extracting nonlinear scattering are explained in detail, as well as how to enhance resolution with the aid of saturated excitation microscopy.

Plasmonics, which are based on the collective oscillation of electrons due to light excitation, involve strongly enhanced local electric fields and thus ...

Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composite Coupons for Mechanical Characterization of Welded Joints through Single Lap Shear Testing

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ultrasonic welding process described in this paper is based on three main pillars. Firstly, flat energy directors are used for preferential heat generation at the joining interface during the welding process. A flat energy director is a neat thermoplastic resin film that is placed between the parts to be joined prior to the welding process and heats up preferentially owing to its lower compressive stiffness relative to the composite substrates. Consequently, flat energy directors provide a simple solution that does not require molding of resin protrusions on the surfaces of the composite substrates, as opposed to ultrasonic welding of unreinforced plastics. Secondly, the process data provided by the ultrasonic welder is used to rapidly define the optimum welding parameters for any thermoplastic composite material combination. Thirdly, displacement control is used in the welding process to ensure consistent quality of the welded joints. According to this method, thermoplastic-composite flat coupons are individually welded in a single lap configuration. Mechanical testing of the welded coupons allows determining the apparent lap shear strength of the joints, which is one of the properties most commonly used to quantify the strength of thermoplastic composite welded joints.

A straightforward procedure for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite coupons for basic mechanical testing is described. Key characteristics of this ultrasonic welding process are the use of flat energy directors for simplified process preparation and the use of process data for the fast definition of optimum processing conditions.

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ...

Advanced Compositional Analysis of Nanoparticle-polymer Composites Using Direct Fluorescence Imaging

The fabrication of polymer-nanoparticle composites is extremely important in the development of many functional materials. Identifying the precise composition of these materials is essential, especially in the design of surface catalysts, where the surface concentration of the active component determines the activity of the material. Antimicrobial materials which utilize nanoparticles are a particular focus of this technology. Recently swell encapsulation has emerged as a technique for inserting antimicrobial nanoparticles into a host polymer matrix. Swell encapsulation provides the advantage of localizing the incorporation to the external surfaces of materials, which act as the active sites of these materials. However, quantification of this nanoparticle uptake is challenging. Previous studies explore the link between antimicrobial activity and surface concentration of the active component, but this is not directly visualized. Here we show a reliable method to monitor the incorporation of nanoparticles into a polymer host matrix via swell encapsulation. We show that the surface concentration of CdSe/ZnS nanoparticles can be accurately visualized through cross-sectional fluorescence imaging. Using this method, we can quantify the uptake of nanoparticles via swell encapsulation and measure the surface concentration of encapsulated particles, which is key in optimizing the activity of functional materials.

Here we present a reliable method to monitor the incorporation of nanoparticles into a polymer host matrix via swell encapsulation. We show that the surface concentration of cadmium selenide quantum dots can be accurately visualized through cross-sectional fluorescence imaging.

The fabrication of polymer-nanoparticle composites is extremely important in the development of many functional materials. Identifying the precise ...

A System to Create Stable Nanoparticle Aerosols from Nanopowders

Nanoparticle aerosols released from nanopowders in workplaces are associated with human exposure and health risks. We developed a novel system, requiring minimal amounts of test materials (min. 200 mg), for studying powder aerosolization behavior and aerosol properties. The aerosolization procedure follows the concept of the fluidized-bed process, but occurs in the modified volume of a V-shaped aerosol generator. The airborne particle number concentration is adjustable by controlling the air flow rate. The system supplied stable aerosol generation rates and particle size distributions over long periods (0.5-2 hr and possibly longer), which are important, for example, to study aerosol behavior, but also for toxicological studies. Strict adherence to the operating procedures during the aerosolization experiments ensures the generation of reproducible test results. The critical steps in the standard protocol are the preparation of the material and setup, and the aerosolization operations themselves. The system can be used for experiments requiring stable aerosol concentrations and may also be an alternative method for testing dustiness. The controlled aerosolization made possible with this setup occurs using energy inputs (may be characterized by aerosolization air velocity) that are within the ranges commonly found in occupational environments where nanomaterial powders are handled. This setup and its operating protocol are thus helpful for human exposure and risk assessment.

We designed and developed an effective nanopowder aerosolization setup and operating protocol. The system generated nanoparticle aerosols with stable number concentrations and size distributions for long durations, requiring only small quantities of test material (min. 200 mg).

Nanoparticle aerosols released from nanopowders in workplaces are associated with human exposure and health risks. We developed a novel system, requiring ...

Plasmonic Trapping and Release of Nanoparticles in a Monitoring Environment

Plasmonic tweezers use surface plasmon polaritons to confine polarizable nanoscale objects. Among the various designs of plasmonic tweezers, only a few can observe immobilized particles. Moreover, a limited number of studies have experimentally measured the exertable forces on the particles. The designs can be classified as the protruding nanodisk type or the suppressed nanohole type. For the latter, microscopic observation is extremely challenging. In this paper, a new plasmonic tweezer system is introduced to monitor particles, both in directions parallel and orthogonal to the symmetric axis of a plasmonic nanohole structure. This feature enables us to observe the movement of each particle near the rim of the nanohole. Furthermore, we can quantitatively estimate the maximal trapping forces using a new fluidic channel.

A microchip fabrication process that incorporates plasmonic tweezers is presented here. The microchip enables the imaging of a trapped particle to measure maximal trapping forces.

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Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Experimental Implementation of a New Composite Fabrication Method: Exposing Bare Fibers on the Composite Surface by the Soft Layer Method

The bipolar plate is a key component in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). It is a multi-functional component that should have high electrical conductivity, high mechanical properties, and high productivity.
In this regard, a carbon fiber/epoxy resin composite can be an ideal material to replace the conventional graphite bipolar plate, which often leads to the catastrophic failure of the entire system because of its inherent brittleness. Though the carbon/epoxy composite has high mechanical properties and is easy to manufacture, the electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction is poor because of the resin-rich layer that forms on its surface. Therefore, an expanded graphite coating was adopted to solve the electrical conductivity issue. However, the expanded graphite coating not only increases the manufacturing costs but also has poor mechanical properties.
In this study, a method to expose fibers on the composite surface is demonstrated. There are currently many methods that can expose fibers by surface treatment after the fabrication of the composite. This new method, however, does not require surface treatment because the fibers are exposed during the manufacture of the composite. By exposing bare carbon fibers on the surface, the electrical conductivity and mechanical strength of the composite are increased drastically.

A protocol to expose bare fibers on the composite surface by eliminating resin rich area is presented. The fibers are exposed during fabrication of the composites, not by the post surface treatment. The exposed carbon composites exhibit high electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction and high mechanical property.

The bipolar plate is a key component in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). It is a multi-functional ...

A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, using 3D-printing. As these types of devices are sensitive to moisture and oxygen, such a chamber can aid researchers in characterizing the electronic and stability properties. The chamber is intended to be used as a temporary, reusable, and stable environment with controlled properties (including humidity, gas introduction, and temperature). It can be used to protect air-sensitive materials or to expose them to contaminants in a controlled way for degradation studies. To characterize the properties of the chamber, we outline a simple procedure to determine the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) using relative humidity as measured by a standard humidity sensor. This standard operating procedure, using a 50% infill density of polylactic acid (PLA), results in a chamber that can be used for weeks without any significant loss of device properties. The versatility and ease of use of the chamber allows it to be adapted to any characterization condition that requires a compact-controlled atmosphere.

Here, we present a protocol for the design, manufacture, and use of a simple, versatile 3D-printed and controlled atmospheric chamber for the optical and electrical characterization of air-sensitive organic optoelectronic devices.

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, ...