Name: protocols for quantifying transferable pesticide residues in turfgrass systems
Uploaded: 2017-03-15T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protocols for Quantifying Transferable Pesticide Residues in Turfgrass Systems at JoVE.com

We thank Khalied Ahmed, Laney McKnight and Drew Pinnix for field and laboratory assistance, as well as the Lake Wheeler Turfgrass Field Laboratory support staff, including Dustin Corbett and Marty Parish, for maintaining research areas. This work was partially supported by the North Carolina State University Center for Turfgrass Environmental Research and Education.

1. Field Plot Identification and Establishment
<ol>
	<li>Identify research areas representative of the turfgrass system of choice. Specifically consider appropriate turfgrass species and soil type, as well as management practices including fertility, irrigation and mowing height.</li>
	<li>Conduct preliminary residue analyses of foliage and soil matrices to ensure pesticide(s) of interest are not detectable.</li>
	<li>Lay out plots to appropriate dimensions for site and sample collection methods, and incorporate 0.5-1....

<ol>
	<li>Milesi, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+and+modeling+the+biogeochemical+cycling+of+turf+grasses+in+the+United+States.">Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States.</a> Environ. Manag. 36, 426-438 (2005).</li><li>Turgeon, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Turfgrass management. , (2008).</li><li>Cisar, J. L., Synder, R. H., Sartain, J. B., Borgert, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dislodgeable+residues+of+chloropyrifos+and+isazofos+and+implications+for+golfer+exposure.">Dislodgeable residues of chloropyrifos and isazofos and implications for golfer exposure.</a> Int. Turf. Soc. 9, 12-18 (2001).</li><li>Morgan, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adult+and+children's+exposure+to+2,4-D+from+multiple+sources+and+pathways.">Adult and children's exposure to 2,4-D from multiple sources and pathways.</a> J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 18 (5), 486-494 (2008).</li><li>. Overview of Risk assessment in the Pesticide Program [Internet] Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=EPA-HQ-OPPT-2009-0157-0003">https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=EPA-HQ-OPPT-2009-0157-0003</a> (2016)</li><li>. OCSPP Harmonized Test Guidelines - Master List [Internet] Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-11/documents/ocspp-testguidelines_masterlist-2015-11-19.pdf">https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-11/documents/ocspp-testguidelines_masterlist-2015-11-19.pdf</a> (2015)</li><li>. Occupational and Residential Exposure Test Guidelines - OPPTS 875.1100 Dermal Exposure - Outdoor Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks/overview-risk-assessment-pesticide-program">https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks/overview-risk-assessment-pesticide-program</a> (1996)</li><li>Fuller, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modified+California+roller+for+measuring+transferable+residues+on+treated+turfgrass.">Modified California roller for measuring transferable residues on treated turfgrass.</a> Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 67 (6), 787-794 (2001).</li><li>Klonne, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+study+of+five+transferable+turf+residue+methods.">Comparative study of five transferable turf residue methods.</a> Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 67 (6), 771-779 (2001).</li><li>Rosenheck, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+a+standardized+sampling+technique+for+pesticide+transferable+turf+residues.">Determination of a standardized sampling technique for pesticide transferable turf residues.</a> Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 67 (6), 780-786 (2001).</li><li>Kim, D. S., Marshall, E. J. P., Brain, P., Caseley, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+crop+canopy+structure+on+herbicide+deposition+and+performance.">Effects of crop canopy structure on herbicide deposition and performance.</a> Weed Res. 51 (3), 310-320 (2011).</li><li>Jeffries, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+influencing+dislodgeable+2,4-D+plant+residues+from+hybrid+bermudagrass+(Cynodon+dactylon+L.+x+C.+transvaalensis.)+athletic+fields.">Factors influencing dislodgeable 2,4-D plant residues from hybrid bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L. x C. transvaalensis.) athletic fields.</a> PLoS One. 11 (2), 1-16 (2016).</li><li>Sears, M. K., Bowhey, C., Braun, H., Stephenson, G. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dislodgeable+residues+and+persistence+of+diazinon,+chloropyrifos+and+isofenphos+following+their+application+to+turfgrass.">Dislodgeable residues and persistence of diazinon, chloropyrifos and isofenphos following their application to turfgrass.</a> Pestic. Sci. 20 (3), 223-232 (1987).</li><li>Campillo, C., Prieto, M. H., Daza, C., Mo&#324;ino, M. J., Garc&#237;a, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+digital+images+to+characterize+canopy+coverage+and+light+interception+in+a+processing+tomato+crop.">Using digital images to characterize canopy coverage and light interception in a processing tomato crop.</a> HortSci. 43 (6), 1780-1786 (2008).</li></ol>

Regulating agencies have not identified a specific method to quantify transferable pesticide residues from turfgrass. This research supports utilizing different methods based on site- and exposure process-specific criteria, as they all have utility for human risk assessments. However, they all have limitations that researchers should be cognizant of prior to their use. Lastly, turfgrass species is not a site selection parameter currently stated in transferable pesticide residue protocols, and this research builds on prev...

Turfgrasses are grown on over 16.3 million ha in the contiguous United States (US) &#8212; exceeding the combined area of irrigated grain corn [(Zea mays L.) 2.5 million ha], soybeans [(Glycine max L.) 2.1 million ha] and cotton [(Gossypium hirsutum L.) 0.9 million ha] &#8212; and are utilized by the public with land uses including athletic fields, commercial/residential lawns, golf courses and parks1,2. They provide many positive societal attributes including dust control, heat dissipation, recreational surfaces and soil stabilization. However, pest encroachment may occur which requires the use of pesticide(s) to maintain the turf to an acceptable level3.
Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems intercept sprayed pesticides. Human-pesticide exposure is possible via various routes, including transferring from treated vegetation directly onto humans, as well as through indirect routes such as transfer onto maintenance equipment, pets and recreational items4,5. To address such concerns, human pesticide exposure risk assessments must be conducted prior to pesticide registration and re-registration in the U.S. to estimate the nature and probability of adverse health effects following exposure to contaminated environmental media6. Within the occupational and residential exposure test guidelines currently employed by the USEPA, foliar transferable residue dissipation tests (OPPTS 875.2100) are conducted to quantify pesticide residues on treated surfaces that can be transferred through various processes onto human skin/clothing or inhaled7,8.
Previous research efforts have compared several foliar transferable pesticide residue methods including a California roller (moving a roller of known mass over cotton cloth), drag sled (pulling a solid object of known mass with a piece of cloth attached to it), polyurethane foam roller (moving a roller of known mass covered with polyurethane foam) and shoe shuffling (attaching cotton cheesecloth to shoes), which are all conducted in a known area of pesticide-treated turfgrass9,10,11,12. Of the aforementioned methods, California roller-based approaches provide the most repeatable approach to quantify foliar transferable pesticide residues; however, comparably more aggressive approaches such as shoe shuffling can transfer more pesticide residue, which also has utility in risk assessments. Hand wiping methods provide a comparatively enhanced ability to contact unique treated turfgrass vegetation surfaces. This method provides more applicable data for nondietary pesticide ingestion, as hand-to-mouth contact is a common process associated with this exposure route.
Turfgrass canopy dynamics vary widely between both species and use sites. Species commonly vary in growth habit and season, as well as blade texture and density, which affect pesticide spray interception and physiological processes3,13. Management inputs can vary widely between use sites, and within a use site based on site-specific expectations. For example, bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.) is utilized in adapted climates as a golf course putting green surface which are typically irrigated and mown &#62;5 times per week (clippings collected) at 0.3 to 0.4 cm, as well as a nonirrigated utility ground cover which may be mown &#60;1 times per week (clippings returned) at 1.5 to 6.3 cm. Previous research has shown transferable foliar pesticide residues can vary between species within a use site, and is affected by irrigation and mowing practices14,15. Ultimately, variability between turfgrass systems inhibits the implementation of a universal method to quantify transferable foliar pesticide residues. Therefore, method selection to optimize human risk assessments should encompass pesticide-, process-, site- and species-specific criteria. The objective of this study was to characterize various methods used to quantify transferable foliar pesticide residues, and highlight conditions that should be considered when selecting a method for a given experiment.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>General</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td>---</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrile gloves</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coolers</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turf paint</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Field plot measuring equipment</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protective foot apparel</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman 3 MM Chr Chromatography Paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-716-3E</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ball roll</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td>---</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC pipe (5 cm inner diameter)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>531137</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hacksaw for PVC cutting</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>90 degree elbow (5 cm inner diameter)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>RCE-2000-S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tee coupler (5 cm inner diameter)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>PVC024001600HD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC adhesive</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lag bolt (0.6 cm diameter by 7 cm length)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>801366</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Size 4 soccer ball</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure gauge</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hand air pump</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fabric scissors</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scott Rags-In-A-Box</td>
			<td>Uline</td>
			<td>S-12809</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive tape</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8 oz sealable glass jar</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hand wipe</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td>---</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% cotton heavyweight inspection gloves</td>
			<td>Uline</td>
			<td>S-19284</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital camera</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ software</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital scale that measures up to 400 g</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stopwatch</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic bucket (23 cm diameter)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>209313</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16 oz sealable glass jar</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Modifed California roller</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td>---</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal conduit (1.25 cm diameter by 1.8 m length)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>101543</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC pipe (10 cm inner diameter)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>531103</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sand + reebar to bring roller to 14.5 kg</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC plug</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>33403D</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyurethane foam sheet (1.25 cm thick) to cover PVC pipe</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 mm painter&#39;s plastic</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plexiglass sheet (107 cm length by 76 cm width by 0.6 cm thick)</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Toggle clamps</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal nails (10 to 15 cm length) to secure frame to ground</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% cotton sheets (&#62; 200 threadcount)</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>32 oz sealable glass jar</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turfgrass vegetation core collection</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td>---</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lever action golf course cup cutter</td>
			<td>Par Aide Product Company</td>
			<td>1001-1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Knife</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiskars Herb Scissors</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>96086966J</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turf plug plastic container</td>
			<td>Any</td>
			<td>NA</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

protocols for quantifying transferable pesticide residues in turfgrass systems

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes onto humans. For this reason, transferable pesticide residue experiments are required for registration and re-registration by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Although such experiments are required, limited specificity is required pertaining to experimental approach. Experimental approaches used to assess pesticide transfer to humans including hand wiping with cotton gloves, modified California roller (moving a roller of known mass over cotton cloth) and soccer ball roll (ball wrapped with sorbent strip) over three treated turfgrass species (creeping bentgrass, hybrid bermudagrass and tall fescue maintained at 0.4, 5 and 9 cm, respectively) are presented. The modified California roller is the most extensively utilized approach to date, and is best suited for use at low mowing heights due to its reproducibility and large sampling area. The soccer ball roll is a less aggressive transfer approach; however, it mimics a very common occurrence in the most popular international sport, and has many implications for nondietary pesticide exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Additionally, this approach may be adjusted for other athletic activities with limited modification. Hand wiping is the best approach to transfer pesticides at higher mowing heights, as roller-based approaches can lay blades over; however, it is more subjective due to more variable sampling pressure. Utility of these methods across turfgrass species is presented, and additional considerations to conduct transferable pesticide residue research in turfgrass systems are discussed.

Building on previous research efforts comparing transferable pesticide residue methods within a single turfgrass system, and turfgrass systems within a single transferable pesticide residue method, a field study (initiated May 24, 2016 in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA) was conducted to compare methods across turfgrass systems. In short, 2,4-D, a broadleaf herbicide used commonly in turfgrass systems, transfer from three turfgrass species (creeping bentgrass, Agrostis stolonifera L...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protocols for Quantifying Transferable Pesticide Residues in Turfgrass Systems at JoVE.com

Protocols for Quantifying Transferable Pesticide Residues in Turfgrass Systems

Transferable pesticide residue experiments in turfgrass systems are integral components of human risk exposure assessments. Experimental approaches to measure transferable residues should be adjusted to the human interaction of interest and turfgrass system dynamics. Three transferable pesticide residue protocols are presented and the suitability across three turfgrass systems is discussed.

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes ...

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