Name: taste exam: a brief and validated test
Uploaded: 2018-08-17T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Taste Exam: A Brief and Validated Test at JoVE.com

来自国立卫生研究院的奖项支持这项研究 (R01DC013588 到 nac、R21DC013886 和 DRR, 以及 NIDCD 行政研究补充, 以促进临床医生科学家在化学感受研究中的出现)。我们收集了部分从 OD018125 的 NIH 基金购买的设备的基因型数据。

宾夕法尼亚大学机构审查委员会批准了这项议定书。如果他们18岁以下或怀孕, 我们就排除了这些科目。
1. 口腔评价: 疾病评估和乳突鉴定
<ol><li>指示主语张开嘴。</li>
	<li>
使用光源, 如手电筒或前照灯, 照亮口腔和检查该地区的七个子网站 (舌, 口, 颊粘膜, 唇粘膜, 牙龈, 硬腭, 和 retromolar 三角)。
	<ol>
<li>可视化舌头的背表面。指导主体抬起舌头, 检查腹舌表面和?...

<ol>
	<li>Cowart, B. J., Young, I. M., Feldman, R. S., Lowry, L. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+disorders+of+smell+and+taste.">Clinical disorders of smell and taste.</a> Occupational Medicine. 12 (3), 465-483 (1997).</li><li>Ackerman, B. H., Kasbekar, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disturbances+of+taste+and+smell+induced+by+drugs.">Disturbances of taste and smell induced by drugs.</a> Pharmacotherapy. 17 (3), 482-496 (1997).</li><li>Kveton, J. F., Bartoshuk, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+unilateral+chorda+tympani+damage+on+taste.">The effect of unilateral chorda tympani damage on taste.</a> Laryngoscope. 104, 25-29 (1994).</li><li>Fischer, R. A., Griffin, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacogenetic+aspects+of+gustation.">Pharmacogenetic aspects of gustation.</a> Drug Research. 14 (14), 673-686 (1964).</li><li>Joyce, C. R., Pan, L., Varonos, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+sensitivity+may+be+used+to+predict+pharmacological+effects.">Taste sensitivity may be used to predict pharmacological effects.</a> Life Science. 7 (9), 533-537 (1968).</li><li>Adappa, N. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetics+of+the+taste+receptor+T2R38+correlates+with+chronic+rhinosinusitis+necessitating+surgical+intervention.">Genetics of the taste receptor T2R38 correlates with chronic rhinosinusitis necessitating surgical intervention.</a> International Forum of Allergy &amp; Rhinology. , (2013).</li><li>Lipchock, S. V., Reed, D. R., Mennella, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relationship+between+bitter-taste+receptor+genotype+and+solid+medication+formulation+usage+among+young+children:+a+retrospective+analysis.">Relationship between bitter-taste receptor genotype and solid medication formulation usage among young children: a retrospective analysis.</a> Clinical Therapeutics. 34 (3), 728-733 (2012).</li><li>Bartoshuk, L. M., Carterette, E. C., Friedman, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of perception: Tasting and smelling. , 2-18 (1978).</li><li>Coldwell, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gustation+assessment+using+the+NIH+Toolbox.">Gustation assessment using the NIH Toolbox.</a> Neurology. 80 (11 Suppl 3), S20-S24 (2013).</li><li>Mueller, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+assessment+of+gustatory+function+in+a+clinical+context+using+impregnated+&amp;#34;taste+strips&amp;#34.">Quantitative assessment of gustatory function in a clinical context using impregnated &amp;#34;taste strips&amp;#34.</a> Rhinology. 41 (1), 2-6 (2003).</li><li>Reed, D. R., Tanaka, T., McDaniel, A. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diverse+tastes:+Genetics+of+sweet+and+bitter+perception.">Diverse tastes: Genetics of sweet and bitter perception.</a> Physiological Behavior. 88 (3), 215-226 (2006).</li><li>Miller, I. J., Reedy, F. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variations+in+human+taste+bud+density+and+taste+intensity+perception.">Variations in human taste bud density and taste intensity perception.</a> Physiological Behavior. 47 (6), 1213-1219 (1990).</li><li>Shahbake, M., Hutchinson, I., Laing, D. G., Jinks, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+quantitative+assessment+of+fungiform+papillae+density+in+the+human+tongue.">Rapid quantitative assessment of fungiform papillae density in the human tongue.</a> Brain Research. 1052 (2), 196-201 (2005).</li><li>Spielman, A. I., Pepino, M. Y., Feldman, R., Brand, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Technique+to+collect+fungiform+(taste)+papillae+from+human+tongue.">Technique to collect fungiform (taste) papillae from human tongue.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 18 (42), 2201 (2010).</li><li>Nuessle, T. M., Garneau, N. L., Sloan, M. M., Santorico, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Denver+papillae+protocol+for+objective+analysis+of+fungiform+papillae.">Denver papillae protocol for objective analysis of fungiform papillae.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (100), e52860 (2015).</li><li>Sanyal, S., O'Brien, S. M., Hayes, J. E., Feeney, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TongueSim:+development+of+an+automated+method+for+rapid+assessment+of+fungiform+papillae+density+for+taste+research.">TongueSim: development of an automated method for rapid assessment of fungiform papillae density for taste research.</a> Chemical Senses. 41 (4), 357-365 (2016).</li><li>Spielman, A. I., Brand, J. G., Buischi, Y., Bretz, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resemblance+of+tongue+anatomy+in+twins.">Resemblance of tongue anatomy in twins.</a> Twin Research and Human Genetics. 14 (3), 277-282 (2011).</li><li>Kalmus, H., Smith, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+antimode+and+lines+of+optimal+separation+in+a+genetically+determined+bimodal+distribution,+with+particular+reference+to+phenylthiocarbamide+sensitivity.">The antimode and lines of optimal separation in a genetically determined bimodal distribution, with particular reference to phenylthiocarbamide sensitivity.</a> Annals of Human Genetics. 29 (2), 127-138 (1965).</li><li>Pearson, J., Finegold, M. J., Budzilovich, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+tongue+and+taste+in+familial+dysautonomia.">The tongue and taste in familial dysautonomia.</a> Pediatrics. 45 (5), 739-745 (1970).</li><li>Fukutake, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Late-onset+hereditary+ataxia+with+global+thermoanalgesia+and+absence+of+fungiform+papillae+on+the+tongue+in+a+Japanese+family.">Late-onset hereditary ataxia with global thermoanalgesia and absence of fungiform papillae on the tongue in a Japanese family.</a> Brain. 119 (Pt 3), 1011-1021 (1996).</li><li>Kinnamon, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+receptor+signalling+-+from+tongues+to+lungs.">Taste receptor signalling - from tongues to lungs.</a> Acta physiologica. 204 (2), 158-168 (2012).</li><li>Lewandowski, B. C., Sukumaran, S. K., Margolskee, R. F., Bachmanov, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amiloride-insensitive+salt+taste+is+mediated+by+two+populations+of+type+iii+taste+cells+with+distinct+transduction+mechanisms.">Amiloride-insensitive salt taste is mediated by two populations of type iii taste cells with distinct transduction mechanisms.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 36 (6), 1942-1953 (2016).</li><li>Vandenbeuch, A., Clapp, T. R., Kinnamon, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amiloride-sensitive+channels+in+type+I+fungiform+taste+cells+in+mouse.">Amiloride-sensitive channels in type I fungiform taste cells in mouse.</a> BMC Neuroscience. 9, 1 (2008).</li><li>Margolskee, R. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+biochemistry+and+molecular+biology+of+taste+transduction.">The biochemistry and molecular biology of taste transduction.</a> Current Opinions in Neurobiology. 3 (4), 526-531 (1993).</li><li>Meyerhof, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+molecular+receptive+ranges+of+human+TAS2R+bitter+taste+receptors.">The molecular receptive ranges of human TAS2R bitter taste receptors.</a> Chemical Senses. 35 (2), 157-170 (2010).</li><li>Yee, K. K., Sukumaran, S. K., Kotha, R., Gilbertson, T. A., Margolskee, R. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glucose+transporters+and+ATP-gated+K++(KATP)+metabolic+sensors+are+present+in+type+1+taste+receptor+3+(T1r3)-expressing+taste+cells.">Glucose transporters and ATP-gated K+ (KATP) metabolic sensors are present in type 1 taste receptor 3 (T1r3)-expressing taste cells.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. , (2011).</li><li>Tordoff, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium:+taste,+intake+and+appetite.">Calcium: taste, intake and appetite.</a> Physiological Review. 81, 1567-1597 (2001).</li><li>Reed, D. R., Xia, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+advances+in+fatty+acid+perception+and+genetics.">Recent advances in fatty acid perception and genetics.</a> Advances in Nutrition. 6 (3), 353S-360S (2015).</li><li>Blekhman, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Host+genetic+variation+impacts+microbiome+composition+across+human+body+sites.">Host genetic variation impacts microbiome composition across human body sites.</a> Genome Biology. 16, 191 (2015).</li><li>Hoon, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Putative+mammalian+taste+receptors:+a+class+of+taste-specific+GPCRs+with+distinct+topographic+selectivity.">Putative mammalian taste receptors: a class of taste-specific GPCRs with distinct topographic selectivity.</a> Cell. 96 (4), 541-551 (1999).</li><li>Laffitte, A., Neiers, F., Briand, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+roles+of+the+sweet+taste+receptor+in+oral+and+extraoral+tissues.">Functional roles of the sweet taste receptor in oral and extraoral tissues.</a> Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic. 17 (4), 379-385 (2014).</li><li>An, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tas2r+activation+promotes+airway+smooth+muscle+relaxation+despite+beta2-adrenergic+receptor+tachyphylaxis.">Tas2r activation promotes airway smooth muscle relaxation despite beta2-adrenergic receptor tachyphylaxis.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular. , (2012).</li><li>Fox, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+relationship+between+chemical+composition+and+taste.">The relationship between chemical composition and taste.</a> Science. 74, 607 (1931).</li><li>Fox, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+relationship+between+chemical+constitution+and+taste.">The relationship between chemical constitution and taste.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 18, 115-120 (1932).</li><li>Bufe, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+molecular+basis+of+individual+differences+in+phenylthiocarbamide+and+propylthiouracil+bitterness+perception.">The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and propylthiouracil bitterness perception.</a> Current Biol.ogy. 15 (4), 322-327 (2005).</li><li>Reed, D. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+perception+of+quinine+taste+intensity+is+associated+with+common+genetic+variants+in+a+bitter+receptor+cluster+on+chromosome+12.">The perception of quinine taste intensity is associated with common genetic variants in a bitter receptor cluster on chromosome 12.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 19 (21), 4278-4285 (2010).</li><li>Bobowski, N., Reed, D. R., Mennella, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variation+in+the+TAS2R31+bitter+taste+receptor+gene+relates+to+liking+for+the+nonnutritive+sweetener+Acesulfame-K+among+children+and+adults.">Variation in the TAS2R31 bitter taste receptor gene relates to liking for the nonnutritive sweetener Acesulfame-K among children and adults.</a> Science Reports. 6, 39135 (2016).</li><li>Allen, A. L., McGeary, J. E., Knopik, V. S., Hayes, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bitterness+of+the+non-nutritive+sweetener+acesulfame+potassium+varies+with+polymorphisms+in+TAS2R9+and+TAS2R31.">Bitterness of the non-nutritive sweetener acesulfame potassium varies with polymorphisms in TAS2R9 and TAS2R31.</a> Chemical Senses. 38 (5), 379-389 (2013).</li><li>Roudnitzky, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic,+genetic,+and+functional+dissection+of+bitter+taste+responses+to+artificial+sweeteners.">Genomic, genetic, and functional dissection of bitter taste responses to artificial sweeteners.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 20 (17), 3437-3449 (2011).</li><li>Guo, S. W., Reed, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+phenylthiocarbamide+perception.">The genetics of phenylthiocarbamide perception.</a> Annals in Human Biology. 28 (2), 111-142 (2001).</li><li>Bartoshuk, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Labeled+scales+(e.g.,+category,+Likert,+VAS)+and+invalid+across-group+comparisons:+what+we+have+learned+from+genetic+variation+in+taste.">Labeled scales (e.g., category, Likert, VAS) and invalid across-group comparisons: what we have learned from genetic variation in taste.</a> Food Quality Prefererences. 14 (2), 125-138 (2003).</li></ol>

这种方法的意义在于它采用了多学科的方法, 具有医学 (口试)、实验心理学 (味觉测试) 和遗传学 (验证步骤) 的特点。味觉信息可能会发展成为一种诊断和预后的工具, 因为味觉提供了一个窗口, 在身体其他地方的蛋白质功能。从实验心理学的角度看, 增加一个简单的考试可以识别不适合研究规范味觉功能的科目。从遗传学的角度来看, 这些程序提供了一种简单的方法来研究容易重现的基因型-表观关...

人类味觉知觉的衡量方法既可以是医疗保健的一部分, 也是生物医学研究的目标, 但与听觉和视力相比, 味觉却很少受到重视 (表 1)。从医学的角度来看, 当临床医生评估病人抱怨的味觉损失, 在大多数情况下, 实际损失的气味1, 这导致解雇的味觉损失作为一个罕见的, 往往是无效的提出投诉。味觉畸变 (dysgeusia) 是更常见的, 经常出现的副作用的药物或周围神经损伤2,3, 但两种形式都没有有效的治疗 (除了停止用药)。临床医生也忽略了味觉的丧失, 因为它迄今对自身的诊断和预后价值甚少。然而, 虽然味觉的测量是一个回水, 它现在可能进入主流医学与复兴的历史欣赏, 味觉可能是诊断或预后工具4,5。例如, 苦味知觉可以预测免疫功能6或患者愿意服用药物7。然而, 生物医学研究人员基本上忽略了味觉。这种疏忽可能在一定程度上反映了这样一个事实: 在理解这个感官系统的早期进展有它的根源在实验心理学8, 一个领域与那些在医学可能是相对地不熟悉的。此外, 对味觉的重新兴趣带来了标准化的味觉方法9 , 建立在早期的方法10, 而全面是漫长的, 不适合临床设置。最后, 对味觉措施的信心可能是微弱的, 因为受试者报告他们自己的经验和证实他们的观察一直是缺乏的。我们的希望是, 一个简单的措施, 调查人员或临床医生可以很容易地管理将获得在流行与两个成分。这里我们描述了一个简单的味觉检查协议, 它有三部分: 对口腔的评估, 味觉测试, 以及使用先天基因型的验证步骤。首先, 我们为这些程序提供了生物学背景, 将医学中的简单实践、实验心理学的感官测量和基因型和遗传学的反应验证结合起来。
味觉知觉开始在嘴里, 因此有效的味觉检查需要包括简要的临床评估为明显的口腔疾病, 红肿, 肿胀和其他变色。口腔含七个子体: 舌、牙龈、口底、颊粘膜、唇粘膜、硬腭、retromolar 三角。以往对人体味觉的研究集中在健康参与者或有明确疾病的人身上, 但随着味觉测试成为医学考试的常规, 重要的是记录口腔的状况作为手术的一部分。
舌头本身是一种肌肉结构, 包裹在粘膜中;点缀其背表面是乳突, 小凸起的结构, 使舌头其独特的纹理和含有味觉受体细胞。我们根据它们的形状对乳突进行分类: 蕈、丝状、叶酸和 circumvallate。蕈乳突 (FP) 位于 anterolaterally 舌上, 呈圆形, 有蘑菇状11。调查人员发表了几种有用的方法来量化 FP, 我们直接向读者提供了测量协议12、13、14、15、16的信息。叶酸的乳突, 形状像一本书的书页 (folia), 完全位于侧后舌表面11。Circumvallate 的乳突, 发现在舌底的沟终, 是大圆顶状结构包围的粘膜壁 (拉丁环, "环绕," +壁垒, "墙")11。最大量的乳突, 丝状, 长而薄, 不含味觉受体。
人的舌头解剖不同。虽然这种解剖变异的来源是未知的, 它部分地由先天遗传变异决定, 调查人员报告31% 卵双胞胎舌解剖学的一致性和60% 单卵双生子双胞胎17之间的一致性。在人群中, 乳突密度也不同, 虽然罕见, 至少有一个遗传性疾病 (家族性 dysautonomia) 导致先天性缺乏味觉乳癌18,19,20。因此, 在进行心理测试之前, 确认 FP 的存在是简要评估的一部分, 并注意到口腔疾病的舌头和证据的相对大小和颜色。
口感乳突含有刺激引发味觉感觉的感官细胞。人类能够感知至少五类的味道: 咸, 酸, 苦, 甜, 和鲜味。虽然咸, 甜, 和鲜味的味道信号的存在有价值的食物来源含有氯化钠, 葡萄糖和氨基酸, 分别, 苦味和酸味信号的存在潜在的毒素和酸的细菌分解食物, 分别和诱发厌恶行为21。咸和酸的味道是转基因通过活化离子通道发现在某些类型的味觉细胞, 虽然对盐转导的理解正在演变, 它可能需要 I 型细胞, 以及22,23。苦、甜、鲜味是由 G 蛋白偶联受体在 II. 型味觉细胞上活化而成, 每一种都能适应特定的口味。三种特殊受体亚基的 Heterodimers 传感器甜和鲜味, 而苦味化合物激活25种不同苦味受体24的组。这些苦味的受体可以反应多种苦味化合物, 一个单一的苦味化合物往往刺激超过一个受体25。尽管最近关于味觉的分子基础知识的扩展, 新的路径26和超越传统的五种口味品质 (例如, 钙27或脂肪酸28知觉) 的最新发现可能会在前面。
有至少两个令人惊讶的方面的味觉家庭的受体: 基因, 这些受体编码可以明显不同的 DNA 序列, 从而在人之间的功能, 和身体的许多组织表达这些基因21,29,30,31. 这些口外部位包括脑、甲状腺、上、下呼吸道和胃肠道, 其中许多人21、29、30、31。当口味感受器官在这些地点不参与口味知觉在传统感觉, 他们可能感觉地方化学环境29,32。例如, 上呼吸道纤毛上皮表达苦味受体 T2R38 (苦味受体 38), 它响应细菌产生的化合物, 并影响先天免疫反应32, 如增加黏膜纤毛间隙和抗微生物肽和一氧化氮的水平。这一发现对慢性鼻窦炎、慢性细菌感染疾病和上呼吸道和鼻窦炎症有医学意义。
与我们这里描述的味觉检查特别相关的是, T2R38 苦味受体, 编码的TAS2R38基因, 表现出遗传变异, 因此变化的味觉敏感性。对苦味化合物 phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) 的知觉差异首先由化学家亚瑟狐狸33描述;后来这个化合物被确定为 T2R38 受体34的激动剂。个体差异产生于 DNA 序列的TAS2R38基因, 其中有三单核苷酸多态性, 每一个产生氨基酸替代品 (A49P, A262V 和 I296V;A: 丙氨酸, P: 脯氨酸, V: 缬氨酸, I。两个常见的单体结果, PAV 和 AVI, 与 PAV/PAV 个人高度敏感的 PTC ("品酒师"), avi/avi 个人是相对不敏感 ("非品酒师"), 和异型的 AVI/PAV 个人在他们的灵敏度更可变35. 有更多的基因变异的例子影响苦味,例如, TAS2R19基因编码的味觉受体 T2R19, 同样表现出遗传变异和对苦味化合物的不同口味敏感性。奎宁36同样, TAS2R31的变异也会影响到高效甜味剂37、38、39的感知苦味。
在这里, 我们描述了一个快速的方法来表征病人的味觉, 利用高产量的协议, 在临床医学, 实验心理学和遗传学。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="850">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:307px;">Disposable diagnostic penlight</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Primacare</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">DL-9223</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">UltraLite Pro headlight</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Integra LifeSciences</td>
			<td>AX2100BIF</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Millipore Q-Gard 2 water purification system</td>
			<td>EMB Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">QGARD00D2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Denatonium benzoate&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D5765</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:307px;">Phenylthiocarbamide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P7629</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:307px;">Quinine hydrochloride dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Q1125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:307px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S1679</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:307px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S0389</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glass scintillation vials</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1230L59</td>
			<td>Same as Wheaton catalog no. 986580</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Oragene Discover OGR-500 DNA collection kit</td>
			<td>DNA Genotek</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">OGR-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">prepIT L2P Protocol reagents</td>
			<td>DNA Genotek</td>
			<td>PT-L2P-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">rs713598 TaqMan SNP genotyping assay</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C___8876467_10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">rs1726866 TaqMan SNP genotyping assay</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C___9506827_10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">rs10246939 TaqMan SNP genotyping assay</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C___9506826_10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">rs10772420 TaqMan SNP genotyping assay</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C___1317426_10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

taste exam: a brief and validated test

味觉在医学和生物医学研究中的日益重要, 以及对其遗传基础的新认识, 促使我们在两方面补充了经典的味觉测试方法。首先, 我们解释如何做一个简短的评价口腔, 包括舌头, 以确保味觉乳突存在, 并注意到有关疾病的证据。其次, 通过比较感知苦味强度和先天受体基因型的报告, 利用遗传学来验证味觉测试数据。基因型客观测度与味觉体验主观报告之间的不一致可以识别数据收集错误、分心的主题或那些不理解或遵循指令的人。我们的期望是快速有效的味觉测试可以说服研究人员和临床医生定期评估味觉, 使味觉测试与听力和视力测试一样普遍。最后, 由于许多组织的身体表达味觉受体, 味觉反应可能提供一个代理的组织敏感性在其他地方的身体, 从而, 作为一个快速的, 护理点测试指导诊断和研究工具, 评估味觉受体蛋白质功能。

从味觉测试的结果已汇集为所有被评估的科目 (n = 840), 并提出后, 分离的基因型。完整的数据集可在 https://carayata.shinyapps.io/TasteBoxplots/中访问, 可以对评估的每个 tastant 和TAS2R38和TAS2R19基因型进行审查。结果证实了TAS2R38受体基因型 (图 3) 中 PTC 的知觉味觉差异的存在。PTC 强度的评分在TAS2R38基因型 (avi/avi, 0.86) 有显著差异;AVI/P...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Taste Exam: A Brief and Validated Test at JoVE.com

Taste Exam: A Brief and Validated Test

味觉考试: 一个简短的验证测试

该协议测量人的味觉反应, 包括一个简短的解剖评估, 短的味觉测试, 和一个验证方法使用的主题的感觉和味觉受体基因型。

The emerging importance of taste in medicine and biomedical research, and new knowledge about its genetic underpinnings, has motivated us to supplement ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Making Sense of Listening: The IMAP Test Battery

听力：IMAP测试电池的决策意识

The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the ...

科研

医学

Technique to Collect Fungiform (Taste) Papillae from Human Tongue

Technique to Collect Fungiform Taste Papillae from Human Tongue

技术收集人舌菌状（味道）乳头

The sense of taste is critical for human life. It informs the body about the quality of food that will be potentially ingested and stimulates metabolic ...

The Trier Social Stress Test Protocol for Inducing Psychological Stress

特里尔社会压力诱发心理应激的测试协议

This article demonstrates a psychological stress protocol for use in a laboratory setting.  Protocols that allow researchers to study the biological ...

The &alpha;-test: Rapid Cell-free CD4 Enumeration Using Whole Saliva

The ÃƒÅ½Ã‚Â±-test: Rapid Cell-free CD4 Enumeration Using Whole Saliva

测试：α-细胞快速免费的CD4计数，使用全唾液

There is an urgent need for affordable CD4 enumeration to monitor HIV disease. CD4 enumeration is out of reach in resource-limited regions due to the time ...

Flexible Colonoscopy in Mice to Evaluate the Severity of Colitis and Colorectal Tumors Using a Validated Endoscopic Scoring System

灵活的结肠镜检查在小鼠使用经过验证的内镜评分系统来评估结肠炎和结肠直肠肿瘤的严重程度

The use of modern endoscopy for research purposes has greatly facilitated our understanding of gastrointestinal pathologies. In particular, experimental ...

The Multiple Sclerosis Performance Test (MSPT): An iPad-Based Disability Assessment Tool

The Multiple Sclerosis Performance Test MSPT: An iPad-Based Disability Assessment Tool

多发性硬化症性能测试（MSPT）：一个iPad为基础的残疾评估工具

Precise measurement of neurological and neuropsychological impairment and disability in multiple sclerosis is challenging. We report a new test, the ...

Determining The Electromyographic Fatigue Threshold Following a Single Visit Exercise Test

确定肌电疲劳阈值以下单次访问运动试验

Theoretically, the electromyographic (EMG) fatigue threshold is the exercise intensity an individual can maintain indefinitely without the need to recruit ...

A Rat Carotid Balloon Injury Model to Test Anti-vascular Remodeling Therapeutics

大鼠颈动脉球囊损伤模型试验抗血管重建治疗

The rat carotid balloon injury is a well-established surgical model that has been used to study arterial remodeling and vascular cell proliferation. It is ...

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

血管内皮功能的超声评估：血流介导的舒张试验的技术指导原则

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality and a major cause of disability worldwide. The dysfunction of the vascular endothelium is a ...

A Blood-based Test for the Detection of ROS1 and RET Fusion Transcripts from Circulating Ribonucleic Acid Using Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction

用数字聚合酶链反应检测循环核糖核酸 ROS1 和 RET 融合记录的血液检测方法

We have developed novel methods for the isolation and characterization of tumor-derived circulating ribonucleic acid (cRNA) for blood-based liquid biopsy. ...