Name: experimental procedure for laboratory studies of in situ burning : flammability and burning efficiency of crude oil
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The authors would like to thank the Danish Council for Independent research for funding the project (Grant DDF - 1335-00282). COWIfonden funded the construction of the Crude Oil Flammability Apparatus and the gas analyzer, including the duct insert. Maersk Oil and Statoil provided the crude oils that were used for the representative results. None of the sponsors have been involved in the protocol or the results of this paper. The authors would also like to thank Ulises Rojas Alva for assistance with constructing the modified cone sample holder.

This protocol makes use of two different experimental setups that are used in steps 4-8, as shown in the accompanying schematics. The first setup is the Crude Oil Flammability Apparatus (COFA) (Figure 1 and Figure 4), which is a 1.0 &#215; 1.0 &#215; 0.50 m3 metal water basin designed to conduct small scale in situ burning of crude oil experiments, as shown for example in Van Gelderen, Brogaard, et al.22</su...

<ol>
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The two weathering methods discussed in this paper are a relatively simple approximation of the weathering processes that a spilled oil on water is subjected to17. Other, more sophisticated weathering methods can also be used to provide weathered crude oil samples, such as the circulating flume described by Brandvik and Faksness35. The advantage of the presented methods is that they require simple equipment and can be easily conducted in a laboratory environment. The result...

In situ burning of spilled crude oil on water is a marine oil spill response method that removes the spilled oil from the water surface by burning it and converting it to soot and gaseous combustion products. This response method was successfully applied during the Exxon Valdez1 and Deepwater Horizon2 oil spills and is regularly mentioned as a potential oil spill response method for the Arctic3,4,5,6. Two of the key parameters that determine whether in situ burning of oil will be successful as a spill response method are the flammability and the burning efficiency of the oil. The first parameter, flammability, describes how easily a fuel can be ignited and can lead to flame spreading over the fuel surface to result in a fully developed fire. The second parameter, burning efficiency, expresses the amount of the oil (in wt%) that is effectively removed from the water surface by the fire. It is thus relevant to understand the flammability and the expected burning efficiency of different crude oils under in situ burning conditions.
The ignition of oil slicks on water for in situ burning purposes is commonly addressed as a practical problem, with qualitative discussions on ignition systems5,7,8,9. The practical approach to the ignition of spilled oil as a binary problem, and labelling oils either &#34;ignitable&#34; or &#34;not ignitable&#34; (e.g. Brandvik, Fritt-Rasmussen, et al.10) is, however, incorrect from a fundamental point of view. In theory, any fuel can be ignited given an appropriate ignition source. It is therefore relevant to quantify the ignition requirements for a wide range of different crude oil types to better understand the properties of a crude oil that would label it as &#34;not ignitable&#34;. For this purpose, the developed method can be used to study the ignition delay time of an oil as a function of the incident heat flux, the critical heat flux of the oil and its thermal inertia, i.e. how difficult it is to heat up the oil.
In a previous study, we postulated that the main parameter that governs the burning efficiency is the heat feedback to the fuel surface11, which is a function of the pool diameter. The theory explains the apparent pool size dependency of the burning efficiency based on laboratory studies reporting low burning efficiencies (32-80%)8,12,13 and large scale studies (pool diameter &#8805;2 m) reporting high burning efficiencies (90-99%)14,15,16. The method discussed herein was designed to test the proposed theory. By subjecting small scale laboratory experiments to a constant external heat flux, the higher heat feedback for large scale pool fires can be simulated under controlled laboratory conditions. As such, the developed method allows studying the burning efficiency effectively as a function of the diameter by varying the external heat flux.
In addition to an external heat flux to simulate the larger scale of in situ burning operations, the experimental setups feature cooling of the oil slick by a cold-water flow, simulating the cooling effect of the sea current. The discussed method is furthermore compatible with both fresh and weathered crude oils. The weathering of crude oil describes the physical and chemical process that affect a crude oil once it is spilled on water, such as losses of its volatile components and mixing with water to form water-in-oil emulsions (e.g., AMAP17). Evaporation and emulsification are two of the main weathering processes that affect the flammability of crude oils18 and protocols for simulating these weathering processes are therefore included in the discussed method.
Herein, we present a novel laboratory method that determines the flammability and burning efficiency of crude oil under conditions that simulate in situ burning operations on sea. Previous studies on the flammability and burning efficiency of crude oils featured both comparable and different methods. The flammability of fresh and weathered crude oils as a function of an external heat flux was studied on water19 and under Arctic temperatures20. Burning efficiency studies typically focus on different types of fresh and weathered crude oils and environmental conditions at a fixed scale (e.g., Fritt-Rasmussen, et al.8 Bech, Sveum, et al.21). A recent study on the burning of crude oils contained by chemical herders is, to the knowledge of the authors, the first to study the burning efficiency for small, intermediate, and large scale experiments under similar conditions13. Large scale experiments are, however, not readily available for parametric studies due to the extensive amount of time and resources required for conducting such experiments. The main advantage of the presented method over the previously mentioned studies is that it allows for simultaneously studying both the flammability and burning efficiency of crude oil under semi-realistic conditions. The combination of studying these two parameters for crude oils as a function of both different oil types and the (simulated) pool diameter through easily repeatable experiments was previously unfeasible in practice.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="943">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:208px;">DUC Crude Oil</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Maersk</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Light crude oil with r = 0.853 g/ml and h = 6.750 mPa*s.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:208px;">Grane Crude Oil</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Statoil</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Heavy crude oil with r = 0.925 g/ml and h = 133.6 mPa*s.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">SVM 3000 Stabinger Viscometer</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Anton Paar</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">C18IP007EN-P</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Viscosity and density meter for the fresh and weathered crude oils.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:208px;">Laboshake RO500</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Gerhardt</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">11-0002</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Rotary shaking table for emulsifying water and oil mixtures.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">Jebao Wave Maker RW-4</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Jebao</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Propeller (flow of 500-4000 L/h) used in the COFA setup to generate a current.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:208px;">Aquabee UP 3000</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Aquabee</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">UP 3000</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Aquarium pump for cooling of heat flux gauge.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">Adventurer Precision Electronic Balance</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">OHAUS</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">AX5205</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Load scale used to weigh the oil for the COFA experiments and in the custom-made cone sample holder for the cone setup.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">3M Oil Sorbent Pads</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">VWR</td>
			<td>MMMAHP156</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Hydrophobic absorption pads used to collect oil residues to determine the burning efficiency of the fire.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="66">
			<td height="66" style="height:66px;width:208px;">Mass Loss Calorimeter</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Fire Testing Technology (FTT)</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">B11325-650-1-1608</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">A custom-made, circular holder was used for the testing of crude oil rather than the standard square sample holder. Includes a heat flux gauge with a range up to 100 kW/m2.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">34972A Data Acquisition / Data Logger Switch Unit</td>
			<td>RS Components Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">702-7958</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Produced by Keysight Technologies. Operated by Keysight benchLink data logger 3 software and equipped with a 20-channel multiplexer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:208px;">Keysight Technologies 34901A 20-channel multiplexer</td>
			<td>RS Components Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">702-7939</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Produced by Keysight Technologies.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Bellows-Sealed Valve</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Swagelok</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">SS-1GS6MM</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Toggle valve to open/close the water in- and outlet of the custom-made cone sample holder for the cone setup.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">Kronos 50 Peristaltic Pump</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">SEKO</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">KRFM0210M6000</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Peristaltic pump used to cool the custom-made cone sample holder for the cone setup.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:208px;">ARCTIC A28 Refrigerated Circulater</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>152-5281</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Water cooling reservoir used to cool the cooling water that flows through the custom-made cone sample holder for the cone setup. Includes a SC 100 Immersion Circulator controller.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:208px;">Gas Analysis Instrumentation Console with Duct Insert</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Fire Testing Technology (FTT)</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">B11328-650-1-1609</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Gas analyzer for O2, CO2 and CO. Uses a 34972A Data Acquisition / Data Logger Switch Unit.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:208px;">Ceramic &#38; Stainless Steel 2.5mm Electrode</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Fire Testing Technology (FTT)</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">M015-4</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Spark igniter from the Mass Loss Calorimeter. Used in the COFA setup to measure the surface temperature upon ignition.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:208px;">Infrared Emitter-Module M110/348</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">80046199</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Original Infrared heaters on which the new design with a water-cooled holder for the heating elements was based. Includes two short wave twin tube emitters (09751751). Operated by a type CB1x25 P power controller.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:208px;">Power Controller Heratron&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">80055836</td>
			<td style="width:464px;">Type CB1x25 P power controller for the infrared heaters.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

experimental procedure for laboratory studies of in situ burning : flammability and burning efficiency of crude oil

A new method for the simultaneous study of the flammability and burning efficiency of fresh and weathered crude oil through two experimental laboratory setups is presented. The experiments are easily repeatable compared to operational scale experiments (pool diameter &#8805;2 m), while still featuring quite realistic in situ burning conditions of crude oil on water. Experimental conditions include a flowing water sub-layer that cools the oil slick and an external heat flux (up to 50 kW/m2) that simulates the higher heat feedback to the fuel surface in operational scale crude oil pool fires. These conditions enable a controlled laboratory study of the burning efficiency of crude oil pool fires that are equivalent to operational scale experiments. The method also provides quantitative data on the requirements for igniting crude oils in terms of the critical heat flux, ignition delay time as a function of the incident heat flux, the surface temperature upon ignition, and the thermal inertia. This type of data can be used to determine the required strength and duration of an ignition source to ignite a certain type of fresh or weathered crude oil. The main limitation of the method is that the cooling effect of the flowing water sub-layer on the burning crude oil as a function of the external heat flux has not been fully quantified. Experimental results clearly showed that the flowing water sub-layer does improve how representative this setup is of in situ burning conditions, but to what extent this representation is accurate is currently uncertain. The method nevertheless features the most realistic in situ burning laboratory conditions currently available for simultaneously studying the flammability and burning efficiency of crude oil on water.

Figure 5 shows the evaporation curve of a light crude oil that was evaporated over multiple days to a loss of 30 wt% using the method described in step 2. The figure clearly shows that after the first day (19 h) of evaporative weathering, the evaporation rate is reduced significantly, which allows for pauses as mentioned in the protocol.
Figure 6 shows the ignition dela...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Experimental Procedure for Laboratory Studies of In Situ Burning : Flammability and Burning Efficiency of Crude Oil at JoVE.com

Experimental Procedure for Laboratory Studies of In Situ Burning : Flammability and Burning Efficiency of Crude Oil

Here, we present a protocol to simultaneously study the flammability and burning efficiency of fresh and weathered crude oil under conditions that simulate in situ burning operations on the sea.

Experimental Procedure for Laboratory Studies of In Situ Burning : Flammability and Burning Efficiency of Crude Oil

A new method for the simultaneous study of the flammability and burning efficiency of fresh and weathered crude oil through two experimental laboratory ...

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