Name: functional evaluation of olfactory pathways in living xenopus tadpoles
Uploaded: 2018-12-11T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Evaluation of Olfactory Pathways in Living Xenopus Tadpoles at JoVE.com

This work was supported by grants from El Ministerio de Econom&#237;a y Competitividad (MINECO; SAF2015-63568-R) cofunded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), by competitive research awards from the M. G. F. Fuortes Memorial Fellowship, the Stephen W. Kuffler Fellowship Fund, the Laura and Arthur Colwin Endowed Summer Research Fellowship Fund, the Fischbach Fellowship, and the Great Generation Fund of the Marine Biological Laboratory and the National Xenopus Resource RRID:SCR_013731 (Woods Hole, MA) where a portion of this work was conducted. We also thank CERCA Program/ Generalitat de Catalunya for institutional support. A.L. is a Serra H&#250;nter fellow.

All procedures were approved by the animal research ethics committee at University of Barcelona.
NOTE: X. tropicalis and X. laevis tadpoles are reared according to standard methods13,14. Tadpole water is prepared by adding commercial salts (see Table of Materials) to water obtained by reverse osmosis. Conductivity is adjusted to &#8764;700 &#181;S and &#8764;1,400 &#181;S for X. t...

<ol>
	<li>Hellsten, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genome+of+the+Western+clawed+frog+Xenopus+tropicalis.">The genome of the Western clawed frog Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Science. 328 (5978), 633-636 (2010).</li><li>Session, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome+evolution+in+the+allotetraploid+frog+Xenopus+laevis.">Genome evolution in the allotetraploid frog Xenopus laevis.</a> Nature. 538 (7625), 336-343 (2016).</li><li>Zhang, L. I., Tao, H. W., Holt, C. E., Harris, W. A., Poo, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critical+window+for+cooperation+and+competition+among+developing+retinotectal+synapses.">A critical window for cooperation and competition among developing retinotectal synapses.</a> Nature. 395 (6697), 37-44 (1998).</li><li>Li, J., Erisir, A., Cline, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+time-lapse+imaging+and+serial+section+electron+microscopy+reveal+developmental+synaptic+rearrangements.">In vivo time-lapse imaging and serial section electron microscopy reveal developmental synaptic rearrangements.</a> Neuron. 69 (2), 273-286 (2011).</li><li>Dietrich, H., Glasauer, S., Straka, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+Organization+of+Vestibulo-Ocular+Responses+in+Abducens+Motoneurons.">Functional Organization of Vestibulo-Ocular Responses in Abducens Motoneurons.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 37 (15), 4032-4045 (2017).</li><li>Buhl, E., Roberts, A., Soffe, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+a+trigeminal+sensory+nucleus+in+the+initiation+of+locomotion.">The role of a trigeminal sensory nucleus in the initiation of locomotion.</a> Journal of Physiology. 590, 2453-2469 (2012).</li><li>Junek, S., Kludt, E., Wolf, F., Schild, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+coding+with+patterns+of+response+latencies.">Olfactory coding with patterns of response latencies.</a> Neuron. 67 (5), 872-884 (2010).</li><li>Stout, R. P., Graziadei, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+the+olfactory+placode+on+the+development+of+the+brain+in+Xenopus+laevis+(Daudin).+I.+Axonal+growth+and+connections+of+the+transplanted+olfactory+placode.">Influence of the olfactory placode on the development of the brain in Xenopus laevis (Daudin). I. Axonal growth and connections of the transplanted olfactory placode.</a> Neuroscience. 5 (12), 2175-2186 (1980).</li><li>Yoshino, J., Tochinai, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+regeneration+of+the+olfactory+bulb+requires+reconnection+to+the+olfactory+nerve+in+Xenopus+larvae.">Functional regeneration of the olfactory bulb requires reconnection to the olfactory nerve in Xenopus larvae.</a> Development, Growth &amp; Differentiation. 48 (1), 15-24 (2006).</li><li>Terni, B., Pacciolla, P., Masanas, H., Gorostiza, P., Llobet, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tight+temporal+coupling+between+synaptic+rewiring+of+olfactory+glomeruli+and+the+emergence+of+odor-guided+behavior+in+Xenopus+tadpoles.">Tight temporal coupling between synaptic rewiring of olfactory glomeruli and the emergence of odor-guided behavior in Xenopus tadpoles.</a> Journal of Comparative Neurology. 525 (17), 3769-3783 (2017).</li><li>Goda, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+screens+for+mutations+affecting+development+of+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Genetic screens for mutations affecting development of Xenopus tropicalis.</a> PLOS Genetics. 2 (6), 91 (2006).</li><li>Nakayama, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+and+efficient+CRISPR/Cas9-mediated+targeted+mutagenesis+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Simple and efficient CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Genesis. 51 (12), 835-843 (2013).</li><li>Jafkins, A., Abu-Daya, A., Noble, A., Zimmerman, L. B., Guille, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Husbandry+of+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Husbandry of Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 917, 17-31 (2012).</li><li>Sive, H. L., Grainger, R. M., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Early Development of Xenopus laevis. A Laboratory manual. , (2000).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D., Faber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Normal table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin). A systematical and chronological survey of the development from the fertilized egg till the end of metamorphosis. , (1956).</li><li>Xu, H., Dude, C. M., Baker, C. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fine-grained+fate+maps+for+the+ophthalmic+and+maxillomandibular+trigeminal+placodes+in+the+chick+embryo.">Fine-grained fate maps for the ophthalmic and maxillomandibular trigeminal placodes in the chick embryo.</a> Developmental Biology. 317 (1), 174-186 (2008).</li><li>Friedrich, R. W., Korsching, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combinatorial+and+chemotopic+odorant+coding+in+the+zebrafish+olfactory+bulb+visualized+by+optical+imaging.">Combinatorial and chemotopic odorant coding in the zebrafish olfactory bulb visualized by optical imaging.</a> Neuron. 18 (5), 737-752 (1997).</li><li>Ishibashi, S., Cliffe, R., Amaya, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Highly+efficient+bi-allelic+mutation+rates+using+TALENs+in+Xenopus+tropicalis.">Highly efficient bi-allelic mutation rates using TALENs in Xenopus tropicalis.</a> Biology Open. 1 (12), 1273-1276 (2012).</li><li>Meijering, E., Dzyubachyk, O., Smal, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+for+cell+and+particle+tracking.">Methods for cell and particle tracking.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 504, 183-200 (2012).</li><li>Nussbaum-Krammer, C. I., Neto, M. F., Brielmann, R. M., Pedersen, J. S., Morimoto, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigating+the+spreading+and+toxicity+of+prion-like+proteins+using+the+metazoan+model+organism+C.+elegans.">Investigating the spreading and toxicity of prion-like proteins using the metazoan model organism C. elegans.</a> Journalof Visualized Experiments. (95), e52321 (2015).</li><li>Koide, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+neural+circuitry+for+attraction+to+amino+acids+revealed+by+transposon-mediated+gene+trap+approach+in+zebrafish.">Olfactory neural circuitry for attraction to amino acids revealed by transposon-mediated gene trap approach in zebrafish.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24), 9884-9889 (2009).</li><li>Love, N. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pTransgenesis:+a+cross-species,+modular+transgenesis+resource.">pTransgenesis: a cross-species, modular transgenesis resource.</a> Development. 138 (24), 5451-5458 (2011).</li><li>Tandon, P., Conlon, F., Furlow, J. D., Horb, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expanding+the+genetic+toolkit+in+Xenopus:+Approaches+and+opportunities+for+human+disease+modeling.">Expanding the genetic toolkit in Xenopus: Approaches and opportunities for human disease modeling.</a> Developmental Biology. 426 (2), 325-335 (2017).</li><li>Pratt, K. G., Khakhalin, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+human+neurodevelopmental+disorders+in+the+Xenopus+tadpole:+from+mechanisms+to+therapeutic+targets.">Modeling human neurodevelopmental disorders in the Xenopus tadpole: from mechanisms to therapeutic targets.</a> Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms. 6 (5), 1057-1065 (2013).</li><li>Truszkowski, T. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fragile+X+mental+retardation+protein+knockdown+in+the+developing+Xenopus+tadpole+optic+tectum+results+in+enhanced+feedforward+inhibition+and+behavioral+deficits.">Fragile X mental retardation protein knockdown in the developing Xenopus tadpole optic tectum results in enhanced feedforward inhibition and behavioral deficits.</a> Neural Development. 11 (1), 14 (2016).</li><li>Hassenkl&#246;ver, T., Manzini, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+wiring+logic+in+amphibians+challenges+the+basic+assumptions+of+the+unbranched+axon+concept.">Olfactory wiring logic in amphibians challenges the basic assumptions of the unbranched axon concept.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 33 (44), 17247-17252 (2013).</li><li>Haas, K., Sin, W. C., Javaherian, A., Li, Z., Cline, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-cell+electroporation+for+gene+transfer+in+vivo.">Single-cell electroporation for gene transfer in vivo.</a> Neuron. 29 (3), 583-591 (2001).</li><li>Sild, M., Van Horn, M. R., Schohl, A., Jia, D., Ruthazer, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+Activity-Dependent+Regulation+of+Radial+Glial+Filopodial+Motility+Is+Mediated+by+Glial+cGMP-Dependent+Protein+Kinase+1+and+Contributes+to+Synapse+Maturation+in+the+Developing+Visual+System.">Neural Activity-Dependent Regulation of Radial Glial Filopodial Motility Is Mediated by Glial cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinase 1 and Contributes to Synapse Maturation in the Developing Visual System.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 36 (19), 5279-5288 (2016).</li><li>McDiarmid, R., Altig, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tadpoles: The biology of anuran larvae. , 149-169 (1999).</li><li>Heerema, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+and+molecular+analyses+of+olfaction-mediated+avoidance+responses+of+Rana+(Lithobates)+catesbeiana+tadpoles:+Sensitivity+to+thyroid+hormones,+estrogen,+and+treated+municipal+wastewater+effluent.">Behavioral and molecular analyses of olfaction-mediated avoidance responses of Rana (Lithobates) catesbeiana tadpoles: Sensitivity to thyroid hormones, estrogen, and treated municipal wastewater effluent.</a> Hormones and Behavior. 101, 85-93 (2018).</li><li>Gaudin, A., Gascuel, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+atlas+describing+the+ontogenic+evolution+of+the+primary+olfactory+projections+in+the+olfactory+bulb+of+Xenopus+laevis.">3D atlas describing the ontogenic evolution of the primary olfactory projections in the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis.</a> Journal of Comparative Neurology. 489 (4), 403-424 (2005).</li><li>Scheidweiler, U., Nezlin, L., Rabba, J., M&#252;ller, B., Schild, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Slice+culture+of+the+olfactory+bulb+of+Xenopus+laevis+tadpoles.">Slice culture of the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis tadpoles.</a> Chemical Senses. 26 (4), 399-407 (2001).</li><li>Manzini, I., Schild, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Classes+and+narrowing+selectivity+of+olfactory+receptor+neurons+of+Xenopus+laevis+tadpoles.">Classes and narrowing selectivity of olfactory receptor neurons of Xenopus laevis tadpoles.</a> Journal of General Physiology. 123 (2), 99-107 (2004).</li><li>Kludt, E., Okom, C., Brinkmann, A., Schild, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrating+temperature+with+odor+processing+in+the+olfactory+bulb.">Integrating temperature with odor processing in the olfactory bulb.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (20), 7892-7902 (2015).</li></ol>

This paper describes techniques that are useful to investigate the functionality of olfactory pathways in living Xenopus tadpoles. The current protocol is particularly useful for those laboratories that work, or have access to Xenopus; however, it is also interesting for those researchers studying the cellular and molecular bases of neuronal regeneration and repair. Results obtained in Xenopus can be combined with data gathered in other vertebrate models to identify conserved mechanisms. The me...

Xenopus tadpoles constitute an excellent animal model to study the normal function of the nervous system. Transparency, a fully sequenced genome1,2, and accessibility to surgical, electrophysiological and imaging techniques are unique properties of Xenopus larvae that allow investigating neuronal functions in vivo3. Some of the multiple experimental possibilities of this animal model are illustrated by the thorough studies performed on tadpole sensory and motor systems4,5,6. A particularly well-suited neuronal circuit to study many aspects of information processing at the level of synapses is the Xenopus tadpole olfactory system7. Firstly, its synaptic connectivity is well defined: olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) project to the olfactory bulb and establish synaptic contacts with dendrites of mitral/tufted cells within glomeruli to generate odor maps. Secondly, its ORNs are continuously generated by neurogenesis throughout life to maintain the functionality of olfactory pathways8. And thirdly, because the olfactory system shows a great regenerative capability, Xenopus tadpoles are able to entirely reform their olfactory bulb after ablation9.
In this paper, we describe approaches that combine imaging of olfactory glomeruli in living tadpoles with behavioral experiments to study the functionality of olfactory pathways. The methods detailed here were used to study the functional recovery of glomerular connectivity in the olfactory bulb after olfactory nerve transection10. Data obtained in Xenopus tadpoles are representative of vertebrates since olfactory processing is evolutionary conserved.
The methods described are exemplified using X. tropicalis but they can easily be implemented in X. laevis. Despite the larger size of adult X. laevis, both species are remarkably similar during tadpole stages. The main differences reside at the genomic level. X. laevis displays poor genetic tractability, mostly determined by its allotetraploid genome and long generation time (approximately 1 year). In contrast, X. tropicalis is more amenable to genetic modifications due to its shorter generation time (5&#8211;8 months) and diploid genome. The representative experiments are illustrated for wild-type animals and three different transgenic lines: Hb9:GFP (X. tropicalis), NBT:GFP (X. tropicalis) and tubb2:GFP (X. laevis).
The methodologies outlined in the current work should be considered alongside the genetic progresses in the Xenopus field. The simplicity and easy implementation of the techniques presented makes them particularly useful for evaluating already described mutants11, as well as Xenopus lines generated by CRISPR-Cas9 technology12. We also describe a surgical procedure used to transect olfactory nerves that can be implemented in any laboratory having access to Xenopus tadpoles. The approaches used for evaluating presynaptic calcium responses and olfactory-guided behavior require specific equipment, albeit available at a moderate cost. Methodologies are presented in a simple form to promote their use in research groups and could set the bases of more complex assays either by implementing improvements or by the association to other techniques, i.e., histological or genetic approaches.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1133px;" width="1132">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:335px;">Salts for aquariums (Instant Ocean Salt)</td>
			<td style="width:359px;">Tecniplast</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">XPSIO25R</td>
			<td style="width:297px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Tricaine (Ethyl 3-aminobenzoate methanesulfonate)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E10521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Tweezers #5 (tip 0.025 x 0.005 mm)</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501985</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Vannas Scissors (tip 0.015 x 0.015)</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501778</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Whatman qualitative filter paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>WH3030917</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">X. laevis tubb2-GFP</td>
			<td>National Xenopus Resource (NXR), RRID:SCR_013731</td>
			<td>NXR_0.0035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">X.tropicalis NBT-GFP</td>
			<td>European Xenopus Resource Center (EXRC) RRID:SCR_007164</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CellTracker CM-DiI</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C-7001</td>
			<td style="width:297px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Calcium Green dextran, Potassium Salt, 10,000 MW, Anionic</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C-3713</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Borosilicate capillaries for microinjection</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>B100-75-10</td>
			<td>O.D.=1.0 mm., I.D.=0.75 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Microinjector</td>
			<td>Parker Instruments</td>
			<td>Picospritzer III</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Sylgard-184</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>761028-5EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Microfil micropipettes</td>
			<td style="width:359px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MF28G-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>AxioImager-A1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Master-8 stimulator</td>
			<td>A.M.P.I.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">CCD Camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>Image EM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Solenoid valves</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>VC-6 Six Channel system</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Dow Corning High Vacuum Grease</td>
			<td>VWR Scientific</td>
			<td>636082B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Tubocurarine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T2379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CCD Camera</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>MRC-5 Camera</td>
			<td>Controlled by Zen software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">camera lens</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MVL8ML3</td>
			<td>There are multiple possibilities that should be adapted to the camera model used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Epoxy resin</td>
			<td>RS Components</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Manifold</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>MP-6 perfusion manifold</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Micromanipulator for local delivery of solutions</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>MN-153</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mini magnetic clamps</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>MAG-7, MAG-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polyethylene tubing</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>64-0755</td>
			<td>O.D.=1.57 mm., I.D.=1.14 mm.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

functional evaluation of olfactory pathways in living xenopus tadpoles

Xenopus tadpoles offer a unique platform to investigate the function of the nervous system. They provide multiple experimental advantages, such as accessibility to numerous imaging approaches, electrophysiological techniques and behavioral assays. The Xenopus tadpole olfactory system is particularly well suited to investigate the function of synapses established during normal development or reformed after injury. Here, we describe methodologies to evaluate the processing of olfactory information in living Xenopus larvae. We outline a combination of in vivo measurements of presynaptic calcium responses in glomeruli of the olfactory bulb with olfactory-guided behavior assays. Methods can be combined with the transection of olfactory nerves to study the rewiring of synaptic connectivity. Experiments are presented using both wild-type and genetically modified animals expressing GFP reporters in central nervous system cells. Application of the approaches described to genetically modified tadpoles can be useful for unraveling the molecular bases that define vertebrate behavior.

In this paper, we present a combination of two complementary approaches to perform in vivo study of the functionality of the Xenopus tadpole olfactory system: i) a method for imaging presynaptic Ca2+ changes in the glomeruli of living tadpoles using a fluorescent calcium indicator, and ii) an odor guided behavioral assay that can be used to investigate the response to specific waterborne odorants. Since these approaches have been employed to evaluate the recov...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Evaluation of Olfactory Pathways in Living Xenopus Tadpoles at JoVE.com

Functional Evaluation of Olfactory Pathways in Living Xenopus Tadpoles

Xenopus tadpoles offer a unique platform to investigate the function of the nervous system in vivo. We describe methodologies to evaluate the processing of olfactory information in living Xenopus larvae in normal rearing conditions or after injury.

Functional Evaluation of Olfactory Pathways in Living Xenopus Tadpoles

Xenopus tadpoles offer a unique platform to investigate the function of the nervous system. They provide multiple experimental advantages, such as ...

This method can be useful to answer key questions in neurobiology fields such as how do presynaptic terminals function in vivo. The main advantage of this set of techniques is that we show complimentary approaches to asses the function of olfactory pathways using Xenopus tadpoles as animal model. Demonstrating this procedure will be myself, Beatrice Terni, and Paolo Pacciolla.Begin the transection procedure by wetting two pieces of cellulose qualitative filter paper in 0.02%MS2 22 anesthetic solution, and placing them under the dissecting scope. Then pick a tadpole from the tank and immerse it in a dish of anesthetic solution. The tadpole should stop swimming within two to four minutes.Check for proper anesthetization by the absence of a reaction to mechanical stimuli applied at the tail level using tweezers. Place the anesthetized tadpole on the filter paper under the scope. Position the animal with its dorsal side facing upward so brain structures can be visualized.For behavioral experiments, use veni scissors to transect both nerves to suppress all odorant information arriving to the olfactory bulb. Load a poled glass pipette with two microliters of calcium green one dextrine solution, and place it in the microinjector. Place an anesthetized tadpole under the dissecting microscope on filter paper, then move the tip of the pipette into the principal cavity of the nasal capsule, and deliver 0.15 to 0.3 microliters of the dye.Leave the tadpole in place for two to three minutes. Using a Pasteur pipette, drip 0.02%MS2 22 solution onto the more coddle parts of the animal to avoid drying. Transfer the animal to the recovery tank where the tadpole should recover normal swimming within 10 minutes or so.Observe florescence at the level of the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulb on the day after injection. Prepare an anesthetized tadpole for imaging by first removing the skin above the olfactory bulb. Use veni scissors to make a lateral incision on the tadpole's skin on the edge of the central nervous system at the level of the olfactory bulb.Avoid extending the cut to the tectum, which can be easily identified by the location of the optic nerve. Keep the animal moist by applying drops of 0.02%MS2 22 solution using a Pasteur pipette then pinch the cut skin using tweezers and pull it over the nervous system. Verify successful removal by the absence of melanocytes above the olfactory bulb.Place the tadpole into the well of the cell guard coated dish. Position a glass cover slip coated with high vacuum grease to cover the top of the tectum to the end of the tail. Ensure that the olfactory bulb and placodes remain exposed to the extracellular medium.Fill the pitri dish with Xenopus Ringer's solution containing 100 micromolar tubocurarine to prevent muscle contractions. Place the dish holding the tadpole under an upright microscope. Connect the reservoir containing Xenopus Ringer's solution with the dish using polyethylene tubing for continuous profusion of Xenopus Ringer's solution.Start perfusing Xenopus Ringer's solution. Maintain the level of the solution in the dish constant throughout the experiment. Continuously evaluate tadpole viability by observing blood circulation through the vessels.Begin live imaging by using a low magnification objective to visualize the tadpole. Move the micromanipulator axis to place the capillary delivering the odorant solution on the top of one nasal capsule, forming a 90 degree angle with the olfactory nerve. Find the olfactory bulb located ipsilaterally to the nasal capsule.Switch to a high-magnification water objective with a long working distance. Check the florescence emission by I.Glomerular structures should be obvious. Begin by pipetting 20 milliliters of fresh amino acid solution into an elevated reservoir.Then take six food deprived tadpoles from their housing tank, and place them in two liters of clean tadpole water to minimize the exposure to odorants. Place a modified six well dish on a white LED transilluminator. Fill each well with 10 milliliters of tadpole water.Place one tadpole per well, then leave to rest for at least three minutes. Start image acquisition and acquire movies that contain basal, stimulus, and recovery periods. An attractive response can be detected as a movement towards the nozzle delivering the solution of amino acids.Return animals to their tank after imaging. Tracking tadpole head positions within an area of 35 millimeters by 35 millimeters, or the equivalent size in pixels, allows a quantitative analysis of olfactory-guided behavior. The dotted line represents the proximal area to the odor solution inlet.Individual plots of tadpole movements are constructed using X Y coordinates obtained by image analysis. The extracted motility plots must faithfully reproduce video images. A region of interest of 8.75 millimeter radius centered on the solution inlet is used to classify the proximity of the animals to the odorant source.More time spent in the vicinity of the odorant's nozzle indicates positive tropism. Time spent by tadpoles near the nozzle during defined periods, for example, 15 second intervals, allows identification of the ability to detect amino acid solutions. The overall behavior of a population of tadpoles can be obtained by plotting the distribution of individual data.Positive tropism can be detected when the amino acid solution is prepared at one millimolar or 160 micromolar. Animals do not respond to water application. Following this procedure, other methods like histological techniques or electrophysiology, can be performed to answer additional questions like the alteration of synaptic properties after injury.After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of neurobiology to explore the processing of olfactory information in Xenopus tadpole.

functional-evaluation-of-olfactory-pathways-in-living-xenopus-tadpoles

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

Multi-unit Recording Methods to Characterize Neural Activity in the Locust (Schistocerca Americana) Olfactory Circuits

Detection and interpretation of olfactory cues are critical for the survival of many organisms. Remarkably, species across phyla have strikingly similar olfactory systems suggesting that the biological approach to chemical sensing has been optimized over evolutionary time1. In the insect olfactory system, odorants are transduced by olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) in the antenna, which convert chemical stimuli into trains of action potentials. Sensory input from the ORNs is then relayed to the antennal lobe (AL; a structure analogous to the vertebrate olfactory bulb). In the AL, neural representations for odors take the form of spatiotemporal firing patterns distributed across ensembles of principal neurons (PNs; also referred to as projection neurons)2,3. The AL output is subsequently processed by Kenyon cells (KCs) in the downstream mushroom body (MB), a structure associated with olfactory memory and learning4,5. Here, we present electrophysiological recording techniques to monitor odor-evoked neural responses in these olfactory circuits.
First, we present a single sensillum recording method to study odor-evoked responses at the level of populations of ORNs6,7. We discuss the use of saline filled sharpened glass pipettes as electrodes to extracellularly monitor ORN responses. Next, we present a method to extracellularly monitor PN responses using a commercial 16-channel electrode3. A similar approach using a custom-made 8-channel twisted wire tetrode is demonstrated for Kenyon cell recordings8. We provide details of our experimental setup and present representative recording traces for each of these techniques.

Multi-unit Recording Methods to Characterize Neural Activity in the Locust Schistocerca Americana Olfactory Circuits

We demonstrate variations of the extracellular multi-unit recording technique to characterize odor-evoked responses in the first three stages of the invertebrate olfactory pathway. These techniques can easily be adapted to examine ensemble activity in other neural systems as well.

Detection and interpretation of olfactory cues are critical for the survival  of many organisms. Remarkably, species across phyla have strikingly similar ...

Transplantation of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells to Evaluate Functional Recovery after Peripheral Nerve Injury

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are neural crest cells which allow growth and regrowth of the primary olfactory neurons. Indeed, the primary olfactory system is characterized by its ability to give rise to new neurons even in adult animals. This particular ability is partly due to the presence of OECs which create a favorable microenvironment for neurogenesis. This property of OECs has been used for cellular transplantation such as in spinal cord injury models. Although the peripheral nervous system has a greater capacity to regenerate after nerve injury than the central nervous system, complete sections induce misrouting during axonal regrowth in particular after facial of laryngeal nerve transection. Specifically, full sectioning of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) induces aberrant axonal regrowth resulting in synkinesis of the vocal cords. In this specific model, we showed that OECs transplantation efficiently increases axonal regrowth.
OECs are constituted of several subpopulations present in both the olfactory mucosa (OM-OECs) and the olfactory bulbs (OB-OECs). We present here a model of cellular transplantation based on the use of these different subpopulations of OECs in a RLN injury model. Using this paradigm, primary cultures of OB-OECs and OM-OECs were transplanted in Matrigel after section and anastomosis of the RLN. Two months after surgery, we evaluated transplanted animals by complementary analyses based on videolaryngoscopy, electromyography (EMG), and histological studies. First, videolaryngoscopy allowed us to evaluate laryngeal functions, in particular muscular cocontractions phenomena. Then, EMG analyses demonstrated richness and synchronization of muscular activities. Finally, histological studies based on toluidine blue staining allowed the quantification of the number and profile of myelinated fibers.
All together, we describe here how to isolate, culture, identify and transplant OECs from OM and OB after RLN section-anastomosis and how to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of these transplanted cells on axonal regrowth and laryngeal functions.

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are neural crest cells which allow growth of the primary olfactory neurons. This specific property can be used for cellular transplantation. We present here a model of cellular transplantation based on the use of OECs in a laryngeal nerve injury model.

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are neural crest cells which allow growth and regrowth of the primary olfactory neurons. Indeed, the primary olfactory ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

Functional Evaluation of Biological Neurotoxins in Networked Cultures of Stem Cell-derived Central Nervous System Neurons

Therapeutic and mechanistic studies of the presynaptically targeted clostridial neurotoxins (CNTs) have been limited by the need for a scalable, cell-based model that produces functioning synapses and undergoes physiological responses to intoxication. Here we describe a simple and robust method to efficiently differentiate murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into defined lineages of synaptically active, networked neurons. Following an 8 day differentiation protocol, mouse embryonic stem cell-derived neurons (ESNs) rapidly express and compartmentalize neurotypic proteins, form neuronal morphologies and develop intrinsic electrical responses. By 18 days after differentiation (DIV 18), ESNs exhibit active glutamatergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synapses and emergent network behaviors characterized by an excitatory:inhibitory balance. To determine whether intoxication with CNTs functionally antagonizes synaptic neurotransmission, thereby replicating the in vivo pathophysiology that is responsible for clinical manifestations of botulism or tetanus, whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology was used to quantify spontaneous miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs) in ESNs exposed to tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) or botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes /A-/G. In all cases, ESNs exhibited near-complete loss of synaptic activity within 20 hr. Intoxicated neurons remained viable, as demonstrated by unchanged resting membrane potentials and intrinsic electrical responses. To further characterize the sensitivity of this approach, dose-dependent effects of intoxication on synaptic activity were measured 20 hr after addition of BoNT/A. Intoxication with 0.005 pM BoNT/A resulted in a significant decrement in mEPSCs, with a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.013 pM. Comparisons of median doses indicate that functional measurements of synaptic inhibition are faster, more specific and more sensitive than SNARE cleavage assays or the mouse lethality assay. These data validate the use of synaptically coupled, stem cell-derived neurons for the highly specific and sensitive detection of CNTs.

A custom protocol is described to differentiate mouse ES cells into defined populations of highly pure neurons exhibiting functioning synapses and emergent network behavior. Electrophysiological analysis demonstrates the loss of synaptic transmission following exposure to botulinum neurotoxin serotypes /A-/G and tetanus neurotoxin.

Therapeutic and mechanistic studies of the presynaptically targeted clostridial neurotoxins (CNTs) have been limited by the need for a scalable, ...

Perforated Patch-clamp Recording of Mouse Olfactory Sensory Neurons in Intact Neuroepithelium: Functional Analysis of Neurons Expressing an Identified Odorant Receptor

Analyzing the physiological responses of olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) when stimulated with specific ligands is critical to understand the basis of olfactory-driven behaviors and their modulation. These coding properties depend heavily on the initial interaction between odor molecules and the olfactory receptor (OR) expressed in the OSNs. The identity, specificity and ligand spectrum of the expressed OR are critical. The probability to find the ligand of the OR expressed in an OSN chosen randomly within the epithelium is very low. To address this challenge, this protocol uses genetically tagged mice expressing the fluorescent protein GFP under the control of the promoter of defined ORs. OSNs are located in a tight and organized epithelium lining the nasal cavity, with neighboring cells influencing their maturation and function. Here we describe a method to isolate an intact olfactory epithelium and record through patch-clamp recordings the properties of OSNs expressing defined odorant receptors. The protocol allows one to characterize OSN membrane properties while keeping the influence of the neighboring tissue. Analysis of patch-clamp results yields&#160;a precise quantification of ligand/OR interactions, transduction pathways and pharmacology, OSNs&#39; coding properties and their modulation at the membrane level.&#160;

Analyzing the physiological properties of olfactory sensory neurons still faces technical limitations. Here we record them through perforated patch-clamp in an intact preparation of the olfactory epithelium in gene-targeted mice. This technique allows the characterization of membrane properties and responses to specific ligands of neurons expressing defined olfactory receptors.

Analyzing the physiological responses of olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) when stimulated with specific ligands is critical to understand the basis of ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. However, there is piling evidence that olfaction is not solely limited to chemical sensitivity, but also includes temperature sensitivity. Premetamorphic Xenopus laevis are translucent animals, with protruding nasal cavities deprived of the cribriform plate separating the nose and the olfactory bulb. These characteristics make them well suited for studying olfaction, and particularly thermosensitivity. The present article describes the complete procedure for measuring temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of X. laevis larvae. Firstly, the electroporation of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) is performed with spectrally distinct dyes loaded into the nasal cavities in order to stain their axon terminals in the bulbar neuropil. The differential staining between left and right receptor neurons serves to identify the &#947;-glomerulus as the only structure innervated by contralateral presynaptic afferents. Secondly, the electroporation is combined with focal bolus loading in the olfactory bulb in order to stain mitral cells and their dendrites. The 3D brain volume is then scanned under line-illumination microscopy for the acquisition of fast calcium imaging data while small temperature drops are induced at the olfactory epithelium. Lastly, the post-acquisition analysis allows the morphological reconstruction of the thermosensitive network comprising the &#947;-glomerulus and its innervating mitral cells, based on specific temperature-induced Ca2+ traces. Using chemical odorants as stimuli in addition to temperature jumps enables the comparison between thermosensitive and chemosensitive networks in the olfactory bulb.

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

Here we describe a protocol for measuring and analyzing temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis. Olfactory receptor neurons and mitral cells are differentially stained, after which calcium changes are recorded, reflecting a sensitivity of some neural networks in the bulb to temperature drops induced at the nose.

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. ...

An Objective and Reproducible Test of Olfactory Learning and Discrimination in Mice

Olfaction is the predominant sensory modality in mice and influences many important behaviors, including foraging, predator detection, mating, and parenting. Importantly, mice can be trained to associate novel odors with specific behavioral responses to provide insight into olfactory circuit function. This protocol details the procedure for training mice on a Go/No-Go operant learning task. In this approach, mice are trained on hundreds of automated trials daily for 2&#8211;4 weeks and can then be tested on novel Go/No-Go odor pairs to assess olfactory discrimination, or be used for studies on how odor learning alters the structure or function of the olfactory circuit. Additionally, the mouse olfactory bulb (OB) features ongoing integration of adult-born neurons. Interestingly, olfactory learning increases both the survival and synaptic connections of these adult-born neurons. Therefore, this protocol can be combined with other biochemical, electrophysiological, and imaging techniques to study learning and activity-dependent factors that mediate neuronal survival and plasticity.

Here, we train mice on an associative learning task to test odor discrimination. This protocol also allows for studies on learning-induced structural changes in the brain.

Olfaction is the predominant sensory modality in mice and influences many important behaviors, including foraging, predator detection, mating, and ...

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic tectum, is a popular model to study how neural circuits self-assemble. The ability to carry out whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons and to record RGC-evoked responses, either in vivo or using a whole brain preparation, has generated a large body of high-resolution data about the mechanisms underlying normal, and abnormal, circuit formation and function. Here we describe how to perform the in vivo preparation, the original whole brain preparation, and a more recently developed horizontal brain slice preparation for obtaining whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons. Each preparation has unique experimental advantages. The in vivo preparation enables the recording of the direct response of tectal neurons to visual stimuli projected onto the eye. The whole brain preparation allows for the RGC axons to be activated in a highly controlled manner, and the horizontal brain slice preparation allows recording from across all layers of the tectum.

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

In this paper, we discuss three brain preparations used for whole cell patch clamp recording to study the retinotectal circuit of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Each preparation, with its own specific advantages, contributes to the experimental tractability of the Xenopus tadpole as a model to study neural circuit function.

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic ...