Name: caffeine extraction, enzymatic activity and gene expression of caffeine synthase from plant cell suspensions
Uploaded: 2018-10-02T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Caffeine Extraction, Enzymatic Activity and Gene Expression of Caffeine Synthase from Plant Cell Suspensions at JoVE.com

The work of our laboratory was funded by a grant from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog&#237;a (CONACyT 219893) to SMTHS. This research was also supported by a fellowship granted to RJPK (No. 37938) by CONACyT and the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (4422). The authors thank CIATEJ for the use of its installations during the writing of this manuscript. Special thanks are extended to Dr. V&#237;ctor Manuel Gonz&#225;lez Mendoza for all recommendations in the molecular biology section&#160;and Valent&#237;n Mendoza Rodr&#237;guez, IFC, UNAM for the facilities during the filming of this article.

1. Caffeine Extraction in Cell Suspensions of C. arabica L.
<ol>
	<li>Use C. arabica cell suspensions9. Maintain the suspensions by biweekly subcultures in Murashige and Skoog medium at pH 4.3 with constant 100 rpm shaking at 25 &#176;C under continuous light (8.3 W/m2).</li>
	<li>Harvest the cells under vacuum filtration using 11 &#181;m pore filter paper and a Buchner funnel.</li>
	<li>Register the fresh weight of the collected cells using a scale, wrap them in alu...

<ol>
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A., Monforte-Gonz&#225;lez, M., V&#225;zquez-Flota, F., Rodas-Junco, B. A., Gonz&#225;lez-Mendoza, V. M., Hern&#225;ndez-Sotomayor, S. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relationship+between+aluminum+stress+and+caffeine+biosynthesis+in+suspension+cells+of+Coffea+arabica+L.">Relationship between aluminum stress and caffeine biosynthesis in suspension cells of Coffea arabica L.</a> Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 181, 177-182 (2018).</li><li>Huang, R., O'Donnell, A. J., Barboline, J. J., Barkman, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Convergent+evolution+of+caffeine+in+plants+by+co-option+of+exapted+ancestral+enzymes.">Convergent evolution of caffeine in plants by co-option of exapted ancestral enzymes.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (38), 10613-10618 (2016).</li><li>Mizuno, K., Okuda, A., Kato, M., Yoneyama, N., Tanaka, H., Ashihara, H., Fujimura, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+a+new+dual-functional+caffeine+synthase+gene+encoding+an+enzyme+for+the+conversion+of+7-methylxanthine+to+caffeine+from+coffee+(Coffea+arabica+L.).">Isolation of a new dual-functional caffeine synthase gene encoding an enzyme for the conversion of 7-methylxanthine to caffeine from coffee (Coffea arabica L.).</a> FEBS letters. 534 (1-3), 75-81 (2003).</li><li>Kato, M., Mizuno, K., Fujimura, T., Iwama, M., Irie, M., Crozier, A., Ashihara, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purification+and+characterization+of+caffeine+synthase+from+tea+leaves.">Purification and characterization of caffeine synthase from tea leaves.</a> Plant Physiology. 120 (2), 579-586 (1999).</li><li>Livak, K. J., Schmittgen, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+relative+gene+expression+data+using+real-time+quantitative+PCR+and+the+2(-Delta+Delta+C(T))+Method.">Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) Method.</a> Method. 25 (4), 402-408 (2001).</li><li>Kurata, H., Achioku, T., Furusaki, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+light/dark+cycle+operation+with+an+hour-scale+period+enhances+caffeine+production+by+Coffea+arabica+cells.">The light/dark cycle operation with an hour-scale period enhances caffeine production by Coffea arabica cells.</a> Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 23 (7-8), 518-523 (1998).</li><li>Sartor, R. M., Mazzafera, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caffeine+formation+by+suspension+cultures+of+Coffea+dewevrei.">Caffeine formation by suspension cultures of Coffea dewevrei.</a> Brazilian Archives of Biology Technology. 43 (1), 1-9 (2000).</li><li>Koshiro, Y., Zheng, X. Q., Wang, M. L., Nagai, C., Ashihara, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+content+and+biosynthetic+activity+of+caffeine+and+trigonelline+during+growth+and+ripening+of+Coffea+arabica+and+Coffea+canephora+fruits.">Changes in content and biosynthetic activity of caffeine and trigonelline during growth and ripening of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora fruits.</a> Plant Science. 171 (2), 242-250 (2006).</li><li>Schimpl, F. C., Kiyota, E., Mayer, J. L. S., de Carvalho Gon&#231;alves, J. F., da Silva, J. F., Mazzafera, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+and+biochemical+characterization+of+caffeine+synthase+and+purine+alkaloid+concentration+in+guarana+fruit.">Molecular and biochemical characterization of caffeine synthase and purine alkaloid concentration in guarana fruit.</a> Phytochemistry. 105, 25-36 (2014).</li><li>Perrois, C., Strickler, S. R., Mathieu, G., Lepelley, M., Bedon, L., Michaux, S., Privat, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+regulation+of+caffeine+metabolism+in+Coffea+arabica+(Arabica)+and+Coffea+canephora+(Robusta).">Differential regulation of caffeine metabolism in Coffea arabica (Arabica) and Coffea canephora (Robusta).</a> Planta. 241 (1), 179-191 (2015).</li></ol>

We present here the optimal conditions for evaluating the caffeine content, CS activity and transcript levels in an in vitro plant tissue culture, such as cell suspensions of C. arabica. Previous reports have confirmed that maintaining cells under light irradiation and in the presence of theobromine in the culture medium are suitable parameters for increasing the level of caffeine, making it possible to evaluate the caffeine separation methods using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography ...

Caffeine is a secondary metabolite that is biosynthesized by plants of the genus Coffea1. This alkaloid belongs to the methylxanthine family and is regarded as a chemical plant defense because it can act against the adverse effects of pathogens and herbivores2,3. In addition, this metabolite is responsible for the stimulating properties of the coffee drink, which is commonly consumed worldwide4,5. Due to its properties, several research groups are interested in studying the biosynthetic pathway and catabolism of caffeine6,7. Currently, plant in vitro cell/tissue cultures serve as an alternative for evaluating caffeine accumulation under various biotic and abiotic strategies8,9.
Caffeine biosynthesis involves the hydrolytic release of 7-methylxanthine from the corresponding ribose nucleoside followed by ordered N-methylations at positions 3 and 1. A specific S-adenosyl methionine (SAM)-dependent N-methyltransferase (NMT) catalyzes the methylation at position 7, whereas theobromine synthase (TS) and CS are involved in the 3- and 1-methylations, respectively, producing theobromine and caffeine. The study of genes encoding distinct NMTs has allowed understanding the mechanism that regulates caffeine production10,11. CS, which has N-methyltransferase activity, catalyzes the last two steps of the biosynthetic pathway of caffeine11. In coffee tree seedlings, it has been shown that light radiation can increase CS activity, which results in an increase in caffeine biosynthesis. Recently, we showed that the maintenance of cell suspensions of C. arabica L. under light irradiation is the optimal condition for evaluating the effects that produce abiotic stress factors impacting the biosynthetic pathway of caffeine8. The information obtained in these studies may have applications in metabolic engineering and systems biology for maximizing the study of the caffeine biosynthetic pathway in such in vitro systems.
Given the advantages of obtaining a suitable model for the study of caffeine biosynthesis, we optimized the extraction conditions for caffeine on cell suspensions of C. arabica L. It was also possible to develop a useful protocol for studying the enzymatic activity as well as methodological steps for assessing the level of gene transcripts of Coffea caffeine synthase 1 (CCS1) encoding this enzyme. Herein, we report a protocol to extract and quantify caffeine in C. arabica cell suspensions by thin-layer chromatography and densitometry (TLC-densitometry).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:883px;" width="883">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige &#38; Skoog Basal salt mixture</td>
			<td>PhytoTechnology Laboratories</td>
			<td>M524</td>
			<td>Packge Size: 50 L 
			Reagent (mg/L) 
			Ammonium Nitrate (1650) 
			Boric acid (6.2) 
			Calcium chloride, anhydrous (322.2) 
			Cobalt Chloride&#8226;H2O (0.025) 
			Cupric Sulfate&#8226;5H2O (0.025) 
			Na2EDTA&#8226;2H2O (37.26) 
			Ferrous Sulfate&#8226;7H2O (27.8) 
			Magnesium Sulfate, Anhydrous (180.7) 
			Manganese Sulfate&#8226;H2O (16.9) 
			Molybdic Acid (Sodium Salt)&#8226; 2H2O (0.25) 
			Potassium Iodide (0.83) 
			Potassium Nitrate (1900) 
			Potassium Phosphate, Monobasic (170) 
			Zinc Sulfate&#8226;7H2O (8.6) 
			Supplemented with 
			myo-inositol (100) 
			thiamine (10) 
			cysteine (25) 
			sucrose (30000) 
			2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (3) 
			6-benzylamine purine (1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caffeine</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>C0750-5G</td>
			<td>STANDARD-5g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Theobromine</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>T4500</td>
			<td>20 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CAMAG TLC Scanner-4</td>
			<td>CAMAG</td>
			<td>27.62</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>WinCATS Planar Chromatography Manager software</td>
			<td>CAMAG</td>
			<td>1.4.10</td>
			<td>Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoamyl alcohol (24:1)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>C-0549</td>
			<td>500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyclohexane</td>
			<td>JALMEX</td>
			<td>C4375-13</td>
			<td>1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>900643</td>
			<td>4 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9093-03</td>
			<td>4 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>JALMEX</td>
			<td>C-4425-15</td>
			<td>3.5 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC silica gel 60 F254</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.05554.0001</td>
			<td>TLC plate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>M6250</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(+)-sodium L- ascorbate</td>
			<td>A4034</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma base</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>T6066</td>
			<td>1 Kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid 36.5-38%</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>9535-05</td>
			<td>2.5 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pierce BCA Protein Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>232227</td>
			<td>Kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methyl [3H]-S-adenosyl methionine</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NET155</td>
			<td>Specific activity of 15 Ci/mmol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid scintillation vials</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>Z253081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermostatic bath/circulator</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>60714</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro centrifugue tube</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tube of 1.5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryogenic vials</td>
			<td>Heathrow Scientific</td>
			<td>HS23202A</td>
			<td>2 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge 5804</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5804 000925</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex</td>
			<td>Thermolyne</td>
			<td>LR 5947</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Porcelain mortar</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>FB961B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>Z274844</td>
			<td>Porosity medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Picofuge</td>
			<td>Stratagene</td>
			<td>400550</td>
			<td>2000 x g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analytical balance</td>
			<td>AND</td>
			<td>HR-120</td>
			<td>Model HR-120</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scintillation counter</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>6500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel photodocumentation system</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>Chemic XRS</td>
			<td>Model Chemic XRS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compact UV lamp</td>
			<td>UVP</td>
			<td>95002112</td>
			<td>UVGL-25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scienceware HDPE Buchner funnel</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>2419907</td>
			<td>Type 37600 mixer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIzol reagent</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>15596-018</td>
			<td>200 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ReverdAid Reverse transcriptase</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>#EP0441</td>
			<td>10000 U</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oligo (dT)18 primer</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>#S0131</td>
			<td>100 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNase I, RNase-free</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>#EN0525</td>
			<td>1000 U</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>EN0525</td>
			<td>1.25 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>EN0525</td>
			<td>1 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP mix</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>R0191</td>
			<td>R0191</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SYBR Green qPCR Master Mix (2X)</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>K0251</td>
			<td>For 200 reactions of 25 &#181;L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PikoReal</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>2.2</td>
			<td>Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol, pH 8.0, equilibrated, Molecular Biology Grade, Ultrapure</td>
			<td>USB</td>
			<td>J75829</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Karal</td>
			<td>2040</td>
			<td>1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethyl alcohol</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>64175</td>
			<td>1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethyl pyrocarbonate</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>D5758</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lab Rotator</td>
			<td>LW Scientific</td>
			<td>Mod. LW210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

caffeine extraction, enzymatic activity and gene expression of caffeine synthase from plant cell suspensions

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a purine alkaloid present in popular drinks such as coffee and tea. This secondary metabolite is regarded as a chemical defense because it has antimicrobial activity and is considered a natural insecticide. Caffeine can also produce negative allelopathic effects that prevent the growth of surrounding plants. In addition, people around the world consume caffeine for its analgesic and stimulatory effects. Due to interest in the technological applications of caffeine, research on the biosynthetic pathway of this compound has grown. These studies have primarily focused on understanding the biochemical and molecular mechanisms that regulate the biosynthesis of caffeine. In vitro tissue culture has become a useful system for studying this biosynthetic pathway. This article will describe a step-by-step protocol for the quantification of caffeine and for measuring the transcript levels of the gene (CCS1) encoding caffeine synthase (CS) in cell suspensions of C. arabica L. as well as its activity.

Caffeine extracts obtained via the process presented here were analyzed by TLC-densitometry by subjecting the samples to plate chromatography according to the scheme shown in Figure 1. To quantify the levels of caffeine in the cell extracts, a curve with various concentrations of commercial standard for this compound was used (Figure 2A). The pattern of absorbance for caffeine was analyzed in the visible light spectrum (UV-VIS) u...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Caffeine Extraction, Enzymatic Activity and Gene Expression of Caffeine Synthase from Plant Cell Suspensions at JoVE.com

Caffeine Extraction, Enzymatic Activity and Gene Expression of Caffeine Synthase from Plant Cell Suspensions

This protocol describes an efficient methodology for the extraction and quantification of caffeine in cell suspensions of C. arabica L. and an experimental process for evaluating the enzymatic activity of caffeine synthase with the expression level of the gene that encodes this enzyme.

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a purine alkaloid present in popular drinks such as coffee and tea. This secondary metabolite is regarded as a ...

This method can help answer key questions in the analytical chemistry, biochemistry and biotechnology fields. Such as, what are the changes that occur in the caffeine biosynthesis. The main advantage of this technique, is that it can be applied to invitro plant models that produces caffeine.To begin, add 10 milliliters of acetone to the lyophilized cells, and seal the flask before mixing with the vortex mixer for 30 seconds. Then, mix the sample at 100 rpm with a rotator for five hours at room temperature. After this, re-suspend the sample with 25 microliters of acetone.First, apply one microliter of the previously prepared caffeine extract to the silica gel plates. Then, develop the TLC in the chromatography chamber with 10 milliliters of the mobile phase, cyclohexane acetone. Visualize the caffeine bands in short wavelength ultraviolet, with a compact UV lamp.After this, quantify caffeine levels by densitometry at 273 nanometers. Using filter paper, vacuum filter the previously prepared cell suspension. Then, use a porcelain mortar to macerate the cell sample, with liquid nitrogen and RNA isolation reagent, until it is homogenized.Next, transfer 500 microliters of the sample to a sterile micro centrifuge tube. Then, add 300 microliters of chloroform isoamyl alcohol, and 300 microliters of equilibrated phenol. Mix the sample with a vortex mixer and centrifuge it at 20, 000G for 15 minutes at four degrees Celsius.After this, transfer 300 microliters of the upper phase to a clean micro centrifuge tube. Then, add 200 microliters of isopropanol and incubate the tube for one hour at negative 20 degrees Celsius. Add one milliliter of ethanol to the pellet.Then, centrifuge the tube at 12, 000G for 10 minutes and decant the liquid phase. Next, dry the sample for 1.5 hours at room temperature. Then, re-suspend the RNA extract with 25 microliters of DEPC-treated water.First, add two micrograms of total RNA extract to a sterile micro centrifuge tube. Then, add one microliter of 10X reaction buffer and one microliter of DNase. Bring the final volume of the reaction to 10 microliters with DEPC-treated water.Then, mix the sample and centrifuge at 2, 000G for one minute. Next, incubate the sample at 37 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes. After this, add one microliter of 50 micromolar disodium ethylene diamine tetraacetate, to stop the reaction.Incubate the sample at 65 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. Then, apply 100 nanograms of RNA to an agarose gel and run the gel. Visualize the integrity of the RNA using a gel photo documentation system.First, add 2.5 micrograms of total RNA to a micro centrifuge tube. Then, add one microliter of oligo deoxythymidine primer and fill the tube to a final volume of 13 microliters with nuclease-free water. Mix the sample and centrifuge it at 2, 000G for one minute.Incubate the sample at 65 degrees Celsius for five minutes. And then at four degrees Celsius for two minutes. Next, add four microliters of 5X reaction buffer, two microliters of dNTP mix and one microliter of reverse transcriptase to the sample.Then, mix the sample gently and centrifuge at 2, 000G for one minute. After this, incubate the sample at 45 degrees Celsius for 50 minutes, and then at 70 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. Add 7.5 microliters of 2X Taq DNA polymerase and 0.1 micromoles of RAX, to a PCR micro centrifuge tube.Then, add 0.75 microliters each of forward and reverse primer to amplify the CCS1 gene. After this, add 600 nanograms of CDNA template. Preform the amplification reaction in real time PCR as described in the text protocol.Then, analyze the data with the PCR software. Weigh out one gram of cellular material and pack it in aluminum foil. After macerating the sample, transfer it to a glass vial and add 2.5 milliliters of extraction buffer.Next, centrifuge the sample at 20, 000G for 20 minutes at four degrees Celsius. Transfer 500 microliters aliquots into cryogenic vials. With a spectrophotometer, measure the protein concentration of the sample at 562 nanometers using a bicinchoninic acid assay, with bovine seric albumin as the standard.First, prepare the reaction mixture in a micro centrifuge tube, according to the text protocol. Then, increase the total volume to 200 microliters with 100 millimolar tris HCL. Remember, it is imperative for your own safety to follow proper precautions during preparation of reaction mixture with radioactive material.Keep the micro centrifuge tube on ice and add a volume of the soluble fraction, containing seven to nine milligrams of protein. Then, vortex the mixture and incubate at 30 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes. After this, centrifuge the samples at 11, 000G for five minutes.Then, carefully recover a volume of 900 microliters, and transfer the samples to a scintillation vial. Next, evaporate the chloroform to complete dryness in the hood at room temperature. Add five milliliters of scintillation fluid to the vial.Finally, analyze the radioactivity incorporated into the caffeine using a scintillation counter. In this protocol, the pattern of absorbance for caffeine was analyzed via TLC densitometry, through the visible light spectrum, and reading in maximum absorption at 273 nanometers. The separation curve of caffeine on the TLC plate, showed an RF between 0.34, and 0.39.The RNA derived from suspended cells exhibits clear separations of the 28s, 18s and 5s RRNA subunits, indicating that the samples were of high quality. Finally, a melt curve was obtained from the QPCR analysis, showing a single amplification product for the caffeine synthase gene. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the fields of biotechnology and biochemistry to explore secondary metabolizing tissue culture from coffee, tea and coco.Don't forget that working with radioactivity and molecular pathology can be extremely hazardous, and precautions such as the use of gloves, goggles and special equipment for radioactive material shall always be taken when performing this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Expression, Purification, and Antimicrobial Activity of S100A12

Calgranulin proteins are important mediators of innate immunity and are members of the S100 class of the EF-hand family of calcium binding proteins. Some S100 proteins have the capacity to bind transition metals with high affinity and effectively sequester them away from invading microbial pathogens in a process that is termed "nutritional immunity". S100A12 (EN-RAGE) binds both zinc and copper and is highly abundant in innate immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils. We report a refined method for the expression, enrichment and purification of S100A12 in its active, metal-binding configuration. Utilization of this protein in bacterial growth and viability analyses reveals that S100A12 has antimicrobial activity against the bacterial pathogen, Helicobacter pylori. The antimicrobial activity is predicated on the zinc-binding activity of S100A12, which chelates nutrient zinc, thereby starving H. pylori which requires zinc for growth and proliferation.

Here, we present a method to express and purify S100A12 (calgranulin C). We describe a protocol to measure its antimicrobial activity against the human pathogen H. pylori.

Calgranulin proteins are important mediators of innate immunity and are members of the S100 class of the EF-hand family of calcium binding proteins. Some ...

A Simple Fractionated Extraction Method for the Comprehensive Analysis of Metabolites, Lipids, and Proteins from a Single Sample

Understanding of complex biological systems requires the measurement, analysis and integration of multiple compound classes of the living cell, usually determined by transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomics and lipidomic measurements. In this protocol, we introduce a simple method for the reproducible extraction of metabolites, lipids and proteins from biological tissues using a single aliquot per sample. The extraction method is based on a methyl tert-butyl ether: methanol: water system for liquid: liquid partitioning of hydrophobic and polar metabolites into two immiscible phases along with the precipitation of proteins and other macromolecules as a solid pellet. This method, therefore, provides three different fractions of specific molecular composition, which are fully compatible with common high throughput 'omics' technologies such as liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC) coupled to mass spectrometers. Even though the method was initially developed for the analysis of different plant tissue samples, it has proved to be fully compatible for the extraction and analysis of biological samples from systems as diverse as algae, insects, and mammalian tissues and cell cultures.

A protocol for comprehensive extraction of lipids, metabolites and proteins from biological tissues using one sample is presented.

Understanding of complex biological systems requires the measurement, analysis and integration of multiple compound classes of the living cell, usually ...

mRNA Interactome Capture from Plant Protoplasts

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) determine the fates of RNAs. They participate in all RNA biogenesis pathways and especially contribute to post-transcriptional gene regulation (PTGR) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). In the past few years, a number of mRNA-bound proteomes from yeast and mammalian cell lines have been successfully isolated through the use of a novel method called &#34;mRNA interactome capture,&#34; which allows for the identification of mRNA-binding proteins (mRBPs) directly from a physiological environment. The method is composed of in vivo ultraviolet (UV) crosslinking, pull-down and purification of messenger ribonucleoprotein complexes (mRNPs) by oligo(dT) beads, and the subsequent identification of the crosslinked proteins by mass spectrometry (MS). Very recently, by applying the same method, several plant mRNA-bound proteomes have been reported simultaneously from different Arabidopsis tissue sources: etiolated seedlings, leaf tissue, leaf mesophyll protoplasts, and cultured root cells. Here, we present the optimized mRNA interactome capture method for Arabidopsis thaliana leaf mesophyll protoplasts, a cell type that serves as a versatile tool for experiments that include various cellular assays. The conditions for optimal protein yield include the amount of starting tissue and the duration of UV irradiation. In the mRNA-bound proteome obtained from a medium-scale experiment (107 cells), RBPs noted to have RNA-binding capacity were found to be overrepresented, and many novel RBPs were identified. The experiment can be scaled up (109 cells), and the optimized method can be applied to other plant cell types and species to broadly isolate, catalog, and compare mRNA-bound proteomes in plants.

Here, we present an interactome capture protocol applied to Arabidopsis thaliana leaf mesophyll protoplasts. This method critically relies on in vivo UV crosslinking and allows for the isolation and identification of plant mRNA-binding proteins from a physiological environment.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) determine the fates of RNAs. They participate in all RNA biogenesis pathways and especially contribute to post-transcriptional ...

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

Modifying Baculovirus Expression Vectors to Produce Secreted Plant Proteins in Insect Cells

It has been a challenge for scientists to express recombinant secretory eukaryotic proteins for structural and biochemical studies. The baculovirus-mediated insect cell expression system is one of the systems used to express recombinant eukaryotic secretory proteins with some post-translational modifications. The secretory proteins need to be routed through the secretory pathways for protein glycosylation, disulfide bonds formation, and other post-translational modifications. To improve the existing insect cell expression of secretory plant proteins, a baculovirus expression vector is modified by the addition of either a GP67 or a hemolin signal peptide sequence between the promoter and multiple-cloning sites. This newly designed modified vector system successfully produced a high yield of soluble recombinant secreted plant receptor proteins of Arabidopsis thaliana. Two of the expressed plant proteins, the extracellular domains of Arabidopsis TDR and PRK3 plasma membrane receptors, were crystallized for X-ray crystallographic studies. The modified vector system is an improved tool that can potentially be used for the expression of recombinant secretory proteins in the animal kingdom as well.

Here, we present the protocols for utilizing the insect cell and baculovirus protein expression system to produce large quantities of plant secreted proteins for protein crystallization. A baculovirus expression vector has been modified with either GP67 or insect hemolin signal peptide for plant protein secretion expression in insect cells.

It has been a challenge for scientists to express recombinant secretory eukaryotic proteins for structural and biochemical studies. The ...

A Colorimetric Assay of Citrate Synthase Activity in Drosophila Melanogaster

Mitochondria play the most prominent roles in cellular metabolism by producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and regulating a variety of physiological processes. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary cause of a number of metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. Intact mitochondria are critical for their proper functioning. The enzyme citrate synthase is localized in the mitochondrial matrix and thus can be used as a quantitative enzyme marker of intact mitochondrial mass. Given that many molecules and pathways that have important functions in mitochondria are highly conserved between humans and Drosophila, and that an array of powerful genetic tools are available in Drosophila, Drosophila serves as a good model system for studying mitochondrial function. Here, we present a protocol for fast and simple measurement of citrate synthase activity in tissue homogenate from adult flies without isolating mitochondria. This protocol is also suitable for measuring citrate synthase activity in larvae, cultured cells, and mammalian tissues.

A Colorimetric Assay of Citrate Synthase Activity in Drosophila Melanogaster

We present a protocol for a colorimetric assay of citrate synthase activity for quantification of intact mitochondrial mass in Drosophila tissue homogenates.

Mitochondria play the most prominent roles in cellular metabolism by producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and regulating a variety of ...

A Customizable Approach for the Enzymatic Production and Purification of Diterpenoid Natural Products

Diterpenoids form a diverse class of small molecule natural products that are widely distributed across the kingdoms of life and have critical biological functions in developmental processes, interorganismal interactions, and environmental adaptation. Due to these various bioactivities, many diterpenoids are also of economic importance as pharmaceuticals, food additives, biofuels, and other bioproducts. Advanced genomics and biochemical approaches have enabled a rapid increase in the knowledge of diterpenoid-metabolic genes, enzymes, and pathways. However, the structural complexity of diterpenoids and the narrow taxonomic distribution of individual compounds in often only a single species remain constraining factors for their efficient production. Availability of a broader range of metabolic enzymes now provide resources for producing diterpenoids in sufficient titers and purity to facilitate a deeper investigation of this important metabolite group. Drawing on established tools for microbial and plant-based enzyme co-expression, we present an easily operated and customizable protocol for the enzymatic production of diterpenoids in either Escherichia coli or Nicotiana benthamiana, and the purification of desired products via silica chromatography and semi-preparative HPLC. Using the group of maize (Zea mays) dolabralexin diterpenoids as an example, we highlight how modular combinations of diterpene synthase (diTPS) and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (P450) enzymes can be used to generate different diterpenoid scaffolds. Purified compounds can be used in various downstream applications, such as metabolite structural analyses, enzyme structure-function studies, and in vitro and in planta bioactivity experiments.

Here we present easy to use protocols for producing and purifying diterpenoid metabolites through the combinatorial expression of biosynthetic enzymes in Escherichia coli or Nicotiana benthamiana, followed by chromatographic product purification. The resulting metabolites are suitable for various studies including molecular structure characterization, enzyme functional studies, and bioactivity assays.

Diterpenoids form a diverse class of small molecule natural products that are widely distributed across the kingdoms of life and have critical biological ...

Obtaining High-Quality Transcriptome Data from Cereal Seeds by a Modified Method for Gene Expression Profiling

The characterization of gene expression is dependent on RNA quality. In germinating, developing and mature cereal seeds, the extraction of high-quality RNA is often hindered by high starch and sugar content. These compounds can reduce both the yield and the quality of the extracted total RNA. The deterioration in quantity and quality of total RNA can subsequently have a significant impact on the downstream transcriptomic analyses, which may not accurately reflect the spatial and/or temporal variation in the gene expression profile of the samples being tested. In this protocol, we describe an optimized method for extraction of total RNA with sufficient quantity and quality to be used for whole transcriptome analysis of cereal grains. The described method is suitable for several downstream applications used for transcriptomic profiling of developing, germinating, and mature cereal seeds. The method of transcriptome profiling using a microarray platform is shown. This method is specifically designed for gene expression profiling of cereals with described genome sequences. The detailed procedure from microarray handling to final quality control is described. This includes cDNA synthesis, cRNA labelling, microarray hybridization, slide scanning, feature extraction, and data quality validation. The data generated by this method can be used to characterize the transcriptome of cereals during germination, in various stages of grain development, or at different biotic or abiotic stress conditions. The results presented here exemplify high-quality transcriptome data amenable for downstream bioinformatics analyses, such as the determination of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), characterisation of gene regulatory networks, and conducting transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS).

A method for transcriptome profiling of cereals is presented. The microarray-based gene expression profiling starts with the isolation of high-quality total RNA from cereal grains and continues with the generation of cDNA. After cRNA labelling and microarray hybridization, recommendations are given for signal detection and quality control.

The characterization of gene expression is dependent on RNA quality. In germinating, developing and mature cereal seeds, the extraction of high-quality ...

Extraction and Quantification of Soluble, Radiolabeled Inositol Polyphosphates from Different Plant Species using SAX-HPLC

The phosphate esters of myo-inositol, also termed inositol phosphates (InsPs), are a class of cellular regulators playing important roles in plant physiology. Due to their negative charge, low abundance and susceptibility to hydrolytic activities, the detection and quantification of these molecules is challenging. This is particularly the case for highly phosphorylated forms containing &#8216;high-energy&#8217; diphospho bonds, also termed inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsPs). Due to its high sensitivity, strong anion exchange high-performance liquid chromatography (SAX-HPLC) of plants labeled with [3H]-myo-inositol is currently the method of choice to analyze these molecules. By using [3H]-myo-inositol to radiolabel plant seedlings, various InsP species including several non-enantiomeric isomers can be detected and discriminated with high sensitivity. Here, the setup of a suitable SAX-HPLC system is described, as well as the complete workflow from plant cultivation, radiolabeling and InsP extraction to the SAX-HPLC run and subsequent data analysis. The protocol presented here allows the discrimination and quantification of various InsP species, including several non-enantiomeric isomers and of the PP-InsPs, InsP7 and InsP8, and can be easily adapted to other plant species. As examples, SAX-HPLC analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana and Lotus japonicus seedlings are performed and complete InsP profiles are presented and discussed. The method described here represents a promising tool to better understand the biological roles of InsPs in plants.

Here we describe strong anion exchange high-performance liquid chromatography of [3H]-myo-inositol-labeled seedlings which is a highly sensitive method to detect and quantify inositol polyphosphates in plants.

The phosphate esters of myo-inositol, also termed inositol phosphates (InsPs), are a class of cellular regulators playing important roles in plant ...

PCR Mutagenesis, Cloning, Expression, Fast Protein Purification Protocols and Crystallization of the Wild Type and Mutant Forms of Tryptophan Synthase

Structural studies with tryptophan synthase (TS) bienzyme complex (&#945;2&#946;2 TS) from Salmonella typhimurium have been performed to better understand its catalytic mechanism, allosteric behavior, and details of the enzymatic transformation of substrate to product in PLP-dependent enzymes. In this work, a novel expression system to produce the isolated &#945;- and isolated &#946;-subunit allowed the purification of high amounts of pure subunits and &#945;2&#946;2 StTS complex from the isolated subunits within 2 days. Purification was carried out by affinity chromatography followed by cleavage of the affinity tag, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). To better understand the role of key residues at the enzyme &#946;-site, site-direct mutagenesis was performed in prior structural studies. Another protocol was created to purify the wild type and mutant &#945;2&#946;2 StTS complexes. A simple, fast and efficient protocol using ammonium sulfate fractionation and SEC allowed purification of &#945;2&#946;2 StTS complex in a single day. Both purification protocols described in this work have considerable advantages when compared with previous protocols to purify the same complex using PEG 8000 and spermine to crystalize the &#945;2&#946;2 StTS complex along the purification protocol. Crystallization of wild type and some mutant forms occurs under slightly different conditions, impairing the purification of some mutants using PEG 8000 and spermine. To prepare crystals suitable for x-ray crystallographic studies several efforts were made to optimize crystallization, crystal quality and cryoprotection. The methods presented here should be generally applicable for purification of tryptophan synthase subunits and wild type and mutant &#945;2&#946;2 StTS complexes.

This article presents a series of consecutive methods for the expression and purification of Salmonella typhimurium tryptophan synthase comp this protocol a rapid system to purify the protein complex in a day. Covered methods are site-directed mutagenesis, protein expression in Escherichia coli, affinity chromatography, gel filtration chromatography, and crystallization.

Structural studies with tryptophan synthase (TS) bienzyme complex (&#945;2&#946;2 TS) from Salmonella typhimurium have been performed to better understand ...