Name: using a classroom-based deese roediger mcdermott paradigm to assess the effects of imagery on false memories
Uploaded: 2018-11-14T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories at JoVE.com

We send special thanks Dr. Mary Ann Foley and Dr. Karen Zabrucky for collaborative work on research projects informing our methodology in this paper.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Review Board of Georgia State University.
1. Material Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Using the word lists attached in the supplemental materials, create four separate presentations: Imagery A, Imagery B, Non-imagery A, and Non-imagery B. Ensure that all four presentations are void of templates or designs, with white backgrounds and black font. The two list orders, A and B, serve to balance any effects of list order or fatigue. The two...

<ol>
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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=False+memories+and+fantastic+beliefs:+15+years+of+the+DRM+illusion.">False memories and fantastic beliefs: 15 years of the DRM illusion.</a> Memory &amp; Cognition. 38 (7), 833-848 (2010).</li><li>Lampinen, J. M., Neuschatz, J. S., Payne, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Source+attributions+and+false+memories:+A+test+of+the+demand+characteristics+account.">Source attributions and false memories: A test of the demand characteristics account.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 6 (1), 130-135 (1999).</li><li>Roediger, H. L., Balota, D. A., Watson, J. M., Roediger, H. L., Nairne, J. S., Neath, I., Surprenant, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spreading+activation+and+arousal+of+false+memories.">Spreading activation and arousal of false memories.</a> The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder. , 95-115 (2001).</li><li>Roediger, H. L., Watson, J. M., McDermott, K. B., Gallo, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+that+determine+false+recall:+A+multiple+regression+analysis.">Factors that determine false recall: A multiple regression analysis.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 8 (3), 385-407 (2001).</li><li>Collins, A. M., Loftus, E. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+spreading-activation+theory+of+semantic+processing.">A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.</a> Psychological Review. 82 (6), 407-428 (1975).</li><li>Buchanan, L., Brown, N. R., Cabeza, R., Maitson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=False+memories+and+semantic+lexicon+arrangement.">False memories and semantic lexicon arrangement.</a> Brain and Language. 68 (1-2), 172-177 (1999).</li><li>Watson, J. M., Balota, D. A., Roediger, H. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Creating+false+memories+with+hybrid+lists+of+semantic+and+phonological+associates:+Over-additive+false+memories+produced+by+converging+associative+networks.">Creating false memories with hybrid lists of semantic and phonological associates: Over-additive false memories produced by converging associative networks.</a> Journal of Memory And Language. 49 (1), 95-118 (2003).</li><li>Robin, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+false+memories.">Imagination and false memories.</a> Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 30 (4), 407-424 (2011).</li><li>Bays, R. B., Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autobiographical+memories+and+the+DRM+illusion:+Investigating+the+content+and+process+of+lure+activations.">Autobiographical memories and the DRM illusion: Investigating the content and process of lure activations.</a> Applied Cognitive Psychology. 29 (5), 742-752 (2015).</li><li>Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagery+encoding+and+false+recognition+errors:+Exploring+boundary+conditions+of+imagery's+enhancing+effects.">Imagery encoding and false recognition errors: Exploring boundary conditions of imagery's enhancing effects.</a> Memory. 20 (6), 700-716 (2012).</li><li>Foley, M. A., Cowan, E., Schlemmer, E., Belser-Ehrlich, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acts+of+generating+and+their+sources:+Predicting+the+effects+of+imagery+encoding+on+false+recognition+errors.">Acts of generating and their sources: Predicting the effects of imagery encoding on false recognition errors.</a> Memory. 20 (4), 384-399 (2012).</li><li>Oliver, M., Bays, R. B., Zabrucky, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=False+memories+and+the+DRM+paradigm:+Effects+of+imagery,+list+and+test+type.">False memories and the DRM paradigm: Effects of imagery, list and test type.</a> TheJournal of General Psychology. 143 (1), 33-48 (2016).</li><li>Ballou, M. R., Sommers, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Similar+phenomena,+different+mechanisms:+Semantic+and+phonological+false+memories+are+produced+by+independent+mechanisms.">Similar phenomena, different mechanisms: Semantic and phonological false memories are produced by independent mechanisms.</a> Memory &amp; cognition. 36 (8), 1450-1459 (2008).</li><li>Garry, M., Manning, C. G., Loftus, E. F., Sherman, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+inflation:+Imagining+a+childhood+event+inflates+confidence+that+it+occurred.">Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 3 (2), 208-214 (1996).</li><li>Garry, M., Polascheck, D. L. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+memory.">Imagination and memory.</a> Current Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (1), 6-10 (2000).</li><li>Hyman, I. E., Pentland, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+mental+imagery+in+the+creation+of+false+childhood+memories.">The role mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories.</a> Journal of Memory and Language. 35 (2), 101-117 (1996).</li><li>Bays, R. B., Zabrucky, K. M., Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagery+induction+processes+differentially+impact+imagination+inflation.">Imagery induction processes differentially impact imagination inflation.</a> Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 35 (1), 5-25 (2015).</li><li>Wade, K. A., Garry, M., Read, J. D., Lindsay, D. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+picture+is+worth+a+thousand+lies:+Using+false+photographs+to+create+false+childhood+memories.">A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 9 (3), 597-603 (2002).</li><li>Foley, M. A., Wozniak, K. H., Gillum, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+false+memory+inductions:+investigating+the+role+of+process,+content+and+source+of+imaginations.">Imagination and false memory inductions: investigating the role of process, content and source of imaginations.</a> Applied Cognitive Psychology. 20 (9), 1119 (2006).</li><li>McDermott, K. B., Watson, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rise+and+fall+of+false+recall:+The+impact+of+presentation+duration.">The rise and fall of false recall: The impact of presentation duration.</a> Journal of Memory and Language. 45 (1), 160-176 (2001).</li><li>Robin, F., Mah&#233;, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+image+and+verbal+generation+on+false+memory.">Effects of image and verbal generation on false memory.</a> Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 35 (1), 26-46 (2015).</li></ol>

The protocol employed in this study modified a widely used word list procedure, the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm, to assess the effects of associative processing with and without imagery instructions on false memories in a classroom-based procedure. The expansion to include the variables of list association type, test type, and imagery instruction implemented here afforded the ability to analyze how each of these complex factors influenced a learning context independently, as well as how they interacted, provi...

Memory is malleable and fallible, and these days people realize the limitations of their own memory system. But how do memory errors arise? What mechanisms are responsible for errors in memory retrieval? We modified a widely used and highly cited laboratory-based procedure called the Deese Roediger McDermott paradigm (DRM)1,2 to investigate the influence of different variables on memory errors. In traditional DRM procedures, participants are asked to learn lists of semantically related words (e.g., table, couch, desk, lamp, pillow, stool, bench, rocker). When later asked to recall and/or recognize the words from the lists, participants often report seeing words that were semantically related to the lists but not actually studied (e.g., chair). False memories for these words, referred to as critical lures, can occur 55% - 80% of the time in standard procedures2,3.
The Activation Monitoring Framework is often cited as a theoretical basis for memory errors that arise from the DRM paradigm. Specifically, DRM false memories are attributed to the dual processes of activation (i.e., the tendency for pieces of information currently active in working memory to &#34;spread&#34; and also activate other, related pieces of information) and monitoring (i.e., assessing the accuracy and/or source of something being remembered)5,6. The process of studying semantically related DRM lists causes activation to spread from the list words to the critical lure and thus activates the critical lure in working memory. The result is a false memory that may not be accurately monitored during later tasks.
The three-phase testing procedure inherent to the DRM paradigm allows cognitive psychologists to manipulate a number of variables during the process of encoding (study of the list items), retention (storage of the list items while completing a distractor task to disrupt working memory), or retrieval (a memory test), to better understand the specific processes that contribute to memory errors. Our procedure expands use of traditional DRM procedures to directly compare memory error rates for different types of content during encoding (e.g., semantically related versus phonologically related)9, test type during retrieval (e.g., a recall task versus a recognition task)10 and, perhaps most notably, imagery encoding processes during list study11,12,13,14.
Our primary interest in developing this protocol was to better understand possible effects of imagery on recall and recognition, particularly whether the effects of creating mental images of the list words during encoding (e.g., imagining them) would vary according to whether the list words were related to the critical lure according to sound (i.e., phonologically) or meaning (i.e., semantically). For instance, for the phonological list log, hog, dock, bog, fog, doll, frog, jog, and dot, the critical lure is dog. For the semantic list mug, saucer, tea, coaster, lid, coffee, straw, and soup, the critical lure is cup. We were interested in whether imaging the list words affected the associative processing for those lists differently. While traditional DRM word lists contain 12-15 semantically related list words2, our procedure employed 8-item word lists. These lists were modified from 16-item lists previously developed to investigate the converging effects of phonological and semantic word associations on false memories9. In order to adapt typical DRM procedures to include imagery instructions, we shortened the word lists by selecting the 8 words from each list that were easiest to create mental images of. This allowed for the elimination of less concrete words (e.g., pun, worst) that were hard to imagine. Additionally, we modified a computer-based word list presentation utilized in previous research15 to standardize the presentation of materials and also developed paper/pencil recall and recognition measures to more appropriately suit classroom environments.
Our results did not suggest an interaction between list association type and imagery procedures, but they did demonstrate the significant main effects of imagery and list type14. We pursued this line of inquiry because of the robust literature of imagination inflation effects suggesting enhanced feelings of belief and memory in past childhood events that are repeatedly imagined16,17,18. However, recently researchers suggest that perhaps not all imagery is created equal and that the nature of imagery instructions mediates the effects on false memory rates19. One possible limitation to the work assessing imagination inflation effects is inherent in the procedure itself. That is, participants are asked to provide Likert scale ratings of their confidence or belief in experiencing certain events in childhood, and following imagination of those events, ratings are provided a second time to assess changes (specifically increases) in those ratings. One possible problem with this procedure is a lack of control over the veracity of experiences that participants must identify with confidence ratings both prior to and after the imagery phase. In some studies, researchers consult family members for corroboration20; however, a majority of the research examining imagination inflation relies solely on the word of the participant.
DRM procedures offer methodological advantages over other memory paradigms, including imagination inflation procedures, because researchers maintain control over the content being activated in working memory through the design of the lists. Specifically, researchers select the list items according to their associative strength to the critical lure and can easily measure when a participant commits the targeted memory error (e.g., chair was not on the studied list but was recalled at test). This content control provides insight into processes that drive associative memory errors, affording researchers the opportunity to explore other potentially important factors driving false memory errors, such as the construction of visual images during list encoding21 or even elaborating on the list items to generate complex event narratives11.
This protocol employs a presentation administration of materials and a paper and pencil format of data collection that allows researchers to collect participant data in large groups (e.g., classrooms), while systematically varying variables. The accessibility and experimental control offered by this protocol provides an opportunity to teach students about memory processes with an in-class demonstration while reliably collecting data. Compared to laboratory-based DRM procedures, this context makes results more applicable to classroom learning, thus informing both cognitive science and educational psychology. In addition, this protocol provides optional modifications that can be utilized to remove the usage of imagery instructions or varying list types, thereby offering a construction-kit type approach that allows for more personalized use.

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using a classroom-based deese roediger mcdermott paradigm to assess the effects of imagery on false memories

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the accuracy of memories. The purpose of the method presented here was to induce false memories using lists of either semantically or phonologically related words and to assess the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. To do this, we used a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm. We adapted word lists from previous DRM studies to suit imagery procedures and created an automated presentation to present the word lists in classroom settings. We then recruited undergraduate classes and instructed some of the classes to create mental images of the list words as they were being presented, while instructing the other classes to simply remember the words. The automated presentation presented word lists to participants, one word at a time, alternating between phonologically and semantically related lists. Participants used paper-pencil recall packets to immediately recall list items, complete a distractor activity, and take a subsequent final recognition test. Often, participants immediately recalled and later recognized words that were related to the list items but were not actually presented; these are known as critical lures and indicate a false memory. The protocol detailed here describes a four-step procedure - list presentation, immediate recall, distractor phase, and final recognition - that can assess the effects of list type and imagery instruction within the DRM paradigm on memory. The automated nature of the list presentation provides the ability to systematically vary variables of interest, and the paper and pencil method of data collection affords an easily accessible method for collecting data in classroom settings. The protocol also offers options to modify the procedure to a more traditional DRM paradigm without imagery and/or list type manipulations. The use of this protocol can provide results relevant to both classroom learning and cognitive science principles.

Effects of DRM Procedures on False Memories: Standard DRM Instructions without Imagery 
To illustrate standard DRM procedures&#39; ability to induce false memories, we analyzed rates of falsely remembering non-list words during recall and recognition. Table 1 reports proportions for the different types of false remembering that occurred during recall and recognition. During immediate recall, participants recalled unpresented words on 20% of the lists...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories at JoVE.com

Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories

The method presented here induced false memories using lists of related words and also assessed the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. This protocol details a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm.

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the ...

This technique can be used to answer key questions in the field of cognitive science, like how mental imagery during encoding can affect the source monitoring of memories later on. The main advantage of this technique is the automated presentation can be used to systematically control the presentation of stimuli in a classroom environment. Though the method can be used to provide insight into the different types of associative processing on working and long-term memory, it can also be used as an in-class demonstration of the basic principles of cognitive psychology, such as false memories, dual encoding and semantic networks.Begin by creating four separate presentations of word lists:Imagery A, Imagery B, Non-Imagery A, and Non-Imagery B.Ensure that all four presentations are void of templates or designs, with white backgrounds and black font. Entitle the first content slide Instructions. In the body of the Instructions slide, include the relevant instructions according to whether the presentation is designated as imagery or non-imagery.Following the Instructions slide, create slide two, and type Prepare for the practice list"centered vertically and horizontally on the slide in 44 point font. On slides three through 10, present the practice list words in order, one word per slide, centered horizontally and vertically in lower-case 72 point font. Go under Transitions in the menu to designate a slide duration of five seconds.Next, on slide 11, indicate the end of the practice list, and the beginning of recall by typing End of practice list"in black font, with the word recall capitalized and double spaced below it in red font. Designate a slide duration of 45 seconds. After the practice list recall slide, create 10 slides to present the test lists in the same manner.For the first slide, type Prepare for list X"Then, for the following eight slides, include the list words in order, each on a separate slide with five second durations. For the last slide, insert a recall slide for 45 seconds with End of list in black font followed by the number of the list in the presentation. Next, ensure that the order of the lists and the slides vary according to the presentation, either in ascending or descending order.After the recall slide for the last list, ensure that the next slide includes the following text:End of word lists. Turn to the next page in your packets and please take the next seven minutes to work on the attached word searches. Finally, create a slide with no duration that says, End of Word Searching.One last activity. Create two versions of recall packets, Imagery and Non-Imagery, in a word processor. On page one of both versions, prompt participants to write down their name, gender, age, major, or any other demographic variables of interest.On page 13 of both versions, show a word search with dimensions of 20 by 20 letters or larger. Ensure that no list or practice words occur in the word search. Within pages two to 12, include repeated recall activity pages, which vary according to the version.Next, obtain the final recognition test, consisting of 80 items, and keep it separate as a separate sheet from the recall packets. Ensure that instructions on the recognition test prompt participants to indicate yes or no in writing as to whether each item appeared in any of the lists presented. Of the 80 items use 30 from the lists presented on the presentation slides at the start of the study.Include each of the 10 critical lures related to the 10 presented lists on the test. Then, for the additional 40 items, use the Deese-Roediger-McDermott, or DRM lists not presented to the participants, including the first, third, and seventh items from each of the 10 non-presented lists, as well as the associated critical lure for each of the 10 non-presented lists. Arrange the items on the recognition memory test such that one item from each of the 10 presented lists and 10 non-presented lists appears prior to any critical lures.Begin by introducing yourself as the researcher. My name's Dr.Oliver, and this is Dr.Miller, and we're gonna be doing a little research experience and participation in class today. And distribute informed consent forms to participants.Have them read and sign the informed consent. Next, distribute the appropriate recall packets to each participant, based on the condition assigned to their class, and read the instructions from the presentation aloud with the slide presented. Ask participants to flip to the next page in their packet for the practice list.If you guys would please turn to the next page in your packet. Move to presentation slide three and read the prompt aloud. Okay, please prepare for the practice list.Everyone ready to practice? After reading the prompt-Okay, here we go. Move to slide four, and allow the presentation to progress through the timed practice list slides.When the practice list recall slide expires and automatically moves to the next list prompt slide, prompt participants to ask any questions they have about the procedure. Does anyone have any questions about the procedure? Answer any questions and instruct participants to turn to page three in their packet for list one.Then, read the list one prompt out loud, and progress to the timed list one slides. Have participants complete the next page in their packet. After recall for list 10, supervise as the presentation prompts the participants to turn to the next page in their packet and work on the word search for seven minutes.Then, when the presentation automatically progresses to the final slide, collect the recall packets from participants, and distribute the final recognition test. Instruct participants to complete the final recognition test at their own pace, and to do their best not to leave any items blank. Finally, after all participants have finished the test, collect the recognition tests, and verbally debrief participants.We're doing a study using these word lists looking at false memories, and so essentially, these word lists, as you're reading them, remind you of a word that's not actually up there. This table illustrates the effects of standard DRM procedures without imagery on false memories. Participants falsely recalled the critical lures 13%of the time, and falsely recalled other, non-studied words 8%of the time.False memories for critical lures were much more likely on the recognition test, where participants falsely remembered 45%of the critical lures. False memories for other non-studied words were much less likely. Here, the effects of using mental imagery during DRM procedures are shown with a comparison of memory accuracy, including list words accurately remembered and critical lures falsely remembered across imagery and non-imagery conditions.Imagining list words during DRM procedures significantly decreased the proportion of false memories during recall and recognition. False memory rates were 6%lower in the imagery condition than in the standard non-imagery condition. Imagery also improved memory in DRM procedures by significantly increasing the proportion of list words that participants correctly recalled and recognized by 5%This protocol can be adapted if more traditional, non-imagery DRM procedures are your focus.Our protocol details modifications that can be used to adapt materials to include only non-imagery instructions or to use longer DRM word lists from the original DRM studies, both of which can increase false memory rates. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that even slight modifications in list presentation, such as time durations, can significantly affect the outcomes.

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Behavior

Applying Stereotactic Injection Technique to Study Genetic Effects on Animal Behaviors

Stereotactic injection is a useful technique to deliver high titer lentiviruses to targeted brain areas in mice. Lentiviruses can either overexpress or knockdown gene expression in a relatively focused region without significant damage to the brain tissue. After recovery, the injected mouse can be tested on various behavioral tasks such as the Open Field Test (OFT) and the Forced Swim Test (FST). The OFT is designed to assess locomotion and the anxious phenotype in mice by measuring the amount of time that a mouse spends in the center of a novel open field. A more anxious mouse will spend significantly less time in the center of the novel field compared to controls. The FST assesses the anti-depressive phenotype by quantifying the amount of time that mice spend immobile when placed into a bucket of water. A mouse with an anti-depressive phenotype will spend significantly less time immobile compared to control animals. The goal of this protocol is to use the stereotactic injection of a lentivirus in conjunction with behavioral tests to assess how genetic factors modulate animal behaviors.

Stereotactic injection of lentiviruses expressing cDNAs or shRNAs can modulate gene expression in specific brain areas of mice. Here, we present a protocol to combine stereotactic injections with behavioral tasks, such as the Open Field Test (OFT) and the Forced Swim Test (FST).

Stereotactic injection is a useful technique to deliver high titer lentiviruses to targeted brain areas in mice. Lentiviruses can either overexpress or ...

An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting false testimonies and interviewing children have restricted the generalizability of the findings. The primary aim of the current study is to provide an easy-to-administer and ecologically valid method for measuring the veracity and quality of school-aged children's (ages 6-11) testimonies when they are asked to provide different types of true and false reports. Moreover, the methodology enables researchers to examine the social and developmental factors that could influence the credibility of a child's testimony. In the current study, children will witness a theft, and are then asked to either falsely deny the transgression, falsely accuse a researcher of the theft, or tell the truth. Afterwards, children are to be interviewed by a second researcher using a thorough and ecologically valid interview protocol that requires children to provide closed-ended and free-recall responses about the events with the instigator (E1). Coders then evaluate the length and number of theft-related details the children give throughout the interview, as well as their ability to maintain their true and false reports. The representative results indicate that the truth and lie-telling conditions elicit the intended behaviors from the children. The open-ended interview questions encouraged children to provide free-recall information about their experiences with E1. Moreover, findings from the closed-ended questions suggest that children are significantly better at maintaining their lies with age, and when producing a false denial compared to a false accusation. Results from the current study can be used to develop a greater understanding of the characteristics of children's true and false testimonies about crime, which can potentially benefit law enforcement, legal staff and professionals who interview children.

An Experimental Analysis of Children&#039;s Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

The current methodology is designed to provide an ecologically relevant approach for measuring the veracity, length and quality of children's true and false testimonies. Implications of the current methodology for future research and professionals who interview children will also be discussed.

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting ...

A Novel Approach to Assess Motor Outcome of Deep Brain Stimulation Effects in the Hemiparkinsonian Rat: Staircase and Cylinder Test

Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is an effective treatment option for Parkinson&#39;s disease. In our lab we established a protocol to screen different neurostimulation patterns in hemiparkinsonian (unilateral lesioned) rats. It consists of creating a unilateral Parkinson&#39;s lesion by injecting 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right medial forebrain bundle, implanting chronic stimulation electrodes into the subthalamic nucleus and evaluating motor outcomes at the end of 24 hr periods of cable-bound external neurostimulation. The stimulation was conducted with constant current stimulation. The amplitude was set 20% below the individual threshold for side effects. The motor outcome evaluation was done by the assessment of spontaneous paw use in the cylinder test according to Shallert and by the assessment of skilled reaching in the staircase test according to Montoya. This protocol describes in detail the training in the staircase box, the cylinder test, as well as the use of both in hemiparkinsonian rats. The use of both tests is necessary, because the staircase test seems to be more sensitive for fine motor skill impairment and exhibits greater sensitivity to change during neurostimulation. The combination of the unilateral Parkinson model and the two behavioral tests allows the assessment of different stimulation parameters in a standardized way.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective treatment option for Parkinson's disease. We established a study design to screen novel stimulation paradigms in rats. The protocol describes the use of the staircase test and cylinder test for motor outcome assessment in DBS treated hemiparkinsonian rats.

Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is an effective treatment option for Parkinson&#39;s disease. In our lab we established a protocol to ...

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words (e.g., nurse, hospital, etc.) at encoding. After a delay, subjects are asked to recall or recognize these words. In the recognition memory version of the task, subjects are asked whether they remember previously presented words, as well as related (but never presented) critical lure words (&#39;doctor&#39;). Typically, the critical word is recognized with high probability and confidence. This false memory effect has been robustly demonstrated across short (e.g., immediate, 20 min) and long (e.g., 1, 7, 60 d) delays between encoding and memory testing. A strength of using this task to study false memory is its simplicity and short duration. If encoding and retrieval components of the task occur in the same session, the entire task can take as little as 2 - 30 min. However, although the DRM task is widely considered a &#39;false memory&#39; paradigm, some researchers consider DRM illusions to be based on the activation of semantic memory networks in the brain, and argue that such semantic gist-based false memory errors may actually be useful in some scenarios (e.g., remembering the forest for the trees; remembering that a word list was about &#34;doctors&#34;, even though the actual word &#34;doctor&#34; was never presented for study). Remembering the gist of experience (instead of or along with individual details) is arguably an adaptive process and this task has provided a great deal of knowledge about the constructive, adaptive nature of memory. Therefore, researchers should use caution when discussing the overall reach and implications of their experiments when using this task to study &#39;false memory&#39;, as DRM memory errors may not adequately reflect false memories in the real world, such as false memory in eyewitness testimony, or false memories of sexual abuse.

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

Here we present the Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task, a tool to study false memories in the laboratory. Subjects study lists of semantically related words (e.g.,&#160;nurse, sick, etc.), and later falsely remember an unstudied word (doctor) that represents the gist, or theme, of the word list.

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words ...

A Within-subjects Experimental Protocol to Assess the Effects of Social Input on Infant EEG

Despite the importance of social interactions for infant brain development, little research has assessed functional neural activation while infants socially interact. Electroencephalography (EEG) power is an advantageous technique to assess infant functional neural activation. However, many studies record infant EEG only during one baseline condition. This protocol describes a paradigm that is designed to comprehensively assess infant EEG activity in both social and nonsocial contexts as well as tease apart how different types of social inputs differentially relate to infant EEG. The within-subjects paradigm includes four controlled conditions. In the nonsocial condition, infants view objects on computer screens. The joint attention condition involves an experimenter directing the infant's attention to pictures. The joint attention condition includes three types of social input: language, face-to-face interaction, and the presence of joint attention. Differences in infant EEG between the nonsocial and joint attention conditions could be due to any of these three types of input. Therefore, two additional conditions (one with language input while the experimenter is hidden behind a screen and one with face-to-face interaction) were included to assess the driving contextual factors in patterns of infant neural activation. Representative results demonstrate that infant EEG power varied by condition, both overall and differentially by brain region, supporting the functional nature of infant EEG power. This technique is advantageous in that it includes conditions that are clearly social or nonsocial and allows for examination of how specific types of social input relate to EEG power. This paradigm can be used to assess how individual differences in age, affect, socioeconomic status, and parent-infant interaction quality relate to the development of the social brain. Based on the demonstrated functional nature of infant EEG power, future studies should consider the role of EEG recording context and design conditions that are clearly social or nonsocial.

This novel protocol is designed to assess the neural bases of social interaction in infants. The paradigm is designed to tease apart how various social inputs such as language, joint attention, and face-to-face interaction relate to infant neural activation. Infant EEG power is recorded during both social and nonsocial conditions.

Despite the importance of social interactions for infant brain development, little research has assessed functional neural activation while infants ...

Using Gold-standard Gait Analysis Methods to Assess Experience Effects on Lower-limb Mechanics During Moderate High-heeled Jogging and Running

A limited number of studies have explored lower-limb biomechanics during high-heeled jogging and running, and most studies have failed to clarify the wearing experience of subjects. This protocol describes the differences in lower-limb kinematics and ground reaction force (GRF) between experienced wearers (EW) and inexperienced wearers (IEW) during moderate high-heeled jogging and running. A three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis system with a configured force platform was used to synchronously capture lower-limb joint movements and GRF. 36 young females volunteered to participate in this study and were asked about high-heeled shoe-wearing experience, including frequency, duration, heel types, and heel heights. Eleven who had the experience of 3 to 6 cm heels for a minimum of three days per week (6 h per day) for at least two years and eleven who wore high heels less than twice per month participated. Subjects performed jogging and running at comfortable low and high speeds, respectively, with the right foot completely stepping onto a force platform when passing by along a 10 m walkway. EW and IEW adopted different biomechanical adaptations while jogging and running. IEW exhibited a generally larger range of joint movement, while EW showed a dramatically larger loading rate of GRF during running. Hence, further studies on the lower-limb biomechanics of high-heeled gait should strictly control the wearing experience of the subjects.

This study investigated lower-limb kinematics and ground reaction force (GRF) during moderate high-heeled jogging and running. Subjects were divided into groups of experienced wearers and inexperienced wearers. A three-dimensional motion analysis system with a configured force platform captured lower-limb joint movements and GRF.

A limited number of studies have explored lower-limb biomechanics during high-heeled jogging and running, and most studies have failed to clarify the ...

Reinstatement of Drug-seeking in Mice Using the Conditioned Place Preference Paradigm

The present protocol describes the Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) as a model of relapse in drug addiction. In this model, animals are first trained to acquire a conditioned place preference in a drug-paired compartment, and after the post-conditioning test, they perform several sessions to extinguish the established preference. The CPP permits the evaluation of the conditioned rewarding effects of drugs related to environmental cues. Then, the extinguished CPP can be robustly reinstated by the non-contingent administration of a priming dose of the drug, and by exposure to stressful stimuli. Both methods will be explained here. When the animal reinitiates the behavioral response, a reinstatement of the conditioned reward is considered to have taken place.
The main advantages of this protocol are that it is non-invasive, inexpensive, and simple with good validity criteria. In addition, it allows the study of different environmental manipulations, such as stress or diet, which can modulate relapse into drug seeking behaviors. However, one limitation is that if the researcher aims to explore the motivation and primary reinforcing effects of the drug, it should be complemented with self-administration procedures, as they involve operant responses of animals.

This protocol describes the Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) as a model of relapse. This procedure permits the measurement of relapse in laboratory animals, considering the impact of drug-associated environmental cues as craving and relapse in abstaining addicts is currently the focus of drug-abuse treatment programs.

The present protocol describes the Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) as a model of relapse in drug addiction. In this model, animals are first trained to ...

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children's spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed. Conducted in a developmental psychology laboratory behind a one-way mirror and video recorded with a hidden camcorder, the protocol starts with a guessing game where the child is given three trials to guess the identities of hidden objects under an upside down cup. The experimenter gives hints in the first two trials to make sure the child "guess" them correctly. At the beginning of the final trial, the experimenter leaves the room briefly and asks the child not to peek under the cup. If the child could not resist the temptation and peeks, small particles previously filled in the cup would scatter on a grooved surface. Upon the experimenter's return, the child is asked if he/she has peeked. If he/she denies transgression contrary to the presence of the physical evidence, he/she is asked to explain why the particles are on the table. Three responses could be observed in the procedure, including the initial transgression, truth-telling or lie-telling behavior if the child peeked, and the strategic lie-telling behavior in the presence of the physical evidence.

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children&#039;s Strategic Lie-telling

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children&#39;s strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children&#39;s spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed.

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of ...

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded via an eye tracker as the participant produces or comprehends a spoken language describing the concurrent visual world. This paradigm has high versatility, as it can be used in a wide range of populations, including those who cannot read and/or who cannot overtly give their behavioral responses, such as preliterate children, elderly adults, and patients. More importantly, the paradigm is extremely sensitive to fine grained manipulations of the speech signal, and it can be used to study the online processing of most topics in language comprehension at multiple levels, such as the fine grained acoustic phonetic features, the properties of words, and the linguistic structures. The protocol described in this article illustrates how a typical visual world eye tracking study is conducted, with an example showing how the online processing of some semantically complex statements can be explored with the visual world paradigm.

The visual world paradigm monitors participants' eye movements in the visual workspace as they are listening to or speaking a spoken language. This paradigm can be used to investigate the online processing of a wide range of psycholinguistic questions, including semantically complex statements, such as disjunctive statements.

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded ...

The HoneyComb Paradigm for Research on Collective Human Behavior

Collective human behavior such as group movement frequently shows surprising patterns and regularities, such as the emergence of leadership. Recent literature has revealed that these patterns, often visible at the global level of the group, are based on self-organized, individual behaviors that follow several simple local parameters. Understanding the dynamics of human collective behavior can help to improve coordination and leadership in group and crowd scenarios, such as identifying the ideal placement and number of emergency exits in buildings.
In this article, we present the experimental paradigm HoneyComb, which can be used to systematically investigate conditions and effects of human collective behavior. This paradigm uses a computer-based multi-user platform, providing a setting that can be shaped and adapted to various types of research questions. Situational conditions (e.g., cost-benefit ratios for specific behavior, monetary incentives and resources, various degrees of uncertainty) can be set by experimenters, depending on the research question. Each participant's motions are recorded by the server as hexagonal coordinates with timestamps at an accuracy of 50 ms and with individual IDs. Thus, a metric can be defined on the playfield, and movement parameters (e.g., distances, velocity, clustering, etc.) of participants can be measured over time. Movement data can in turn be combined with non-computerized data from questionnaires garnered within the same experiment setup.
The HoneyComb paradigm is paving the way for new types of human movement experiments. We demonstrate here that these experiments can render results with sufficient internal validity to meaningfully deepen our understanding of human collective behavior.

Here, we present the computer-based, multi-agent game HoneyComb, which enables experimental investigations of collective human movement behavior via black-dot-avatars on a virtual 2D hexagonal playfield. Different experimental conditions, like variable&#160;incentives on goal fields or vision radius, can be set, and their effects on human movement behavior can be investigated.

Collective human behavior such as group movement frequently shows surprising patterns and regularities, such as the emergence of leadership. Recent ...