Name: impacts of free-falling spheres on a deep liquid pool with altered fluid and impactor surface conditions
Uploaded: 2019-02-17T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Impacts of Free-falling Spheres on a Deep Liquid Pool with Altered Fluid and Impactor Surface Conditions at JoVE.com

The authors would like to acknowledge the College of Engineering and Computer Sciences (CECS) at the University of Central Florida for funding this project, Joshua Bom and Chris Souchik for splash imagery and Nicholas Smith for valuable feedback.

1. Configuring the experiment for vertical impacts
<ol>
	<li>Fill a transparent water tank of dimensions approximately 60 cm x 30 cm x 36 cm (length x weight x depth) with 32 L of water and mount a meter ruler (&#8216;visual scale&#8217;) vertically inside the container such that the base sits atop the fluid, as seen in Figure 1a. 
	NOTE: Depth and width of the tank must be greater than 20 times the diameter of the largest spheres used in the experiment to ensure wall effects are negl...

<ol>
	<li>Watson, D. A., Stephen, J. L., Dickerson, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jet+amplification+and+cavity+formation+induced+by+penetrable+fabrics+in+hydrophilic+sphere+entry.">Jet amplification and cavity formation induced by penetrable fabrics in hydrophilic sphere entry.</a> Physics of Fluids. 30, 082109 (2018).</li><li>Truscott, T. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cavity dynamics of water entry for spheres and ballistic projectiles. , (2009).</li><li>Truscott, T., Techet, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+entry+of+spinning+spheres.">Water entry of spinning spheres.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 625, 135 (2009).</li><li>Techet, A., Truscott, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+entry+of+spinning+hydrophobic+and+hydrophilic+spheres.">Water entry of spinning hydrophobic and hydrophilic spheres.</a> Journal of Fluids and Structures. , 716 (2011).</li><li>Zhao, S., Wei, C., Cong, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Numerical+investigation+of+water+entry+of+half+hydrophilic+and+half+hydrophobic+spheres.">Numerical investigation of water entry of half hydrophilic and half hydrophobic spheres.</a> Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2016, 1-15 (2016).</li><li>Worthington, A. M., Cole, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+with+a+liquid+surface+studied+by+the+aid+of+instantaneous+photography.">Impact with a liquid surface studied by the aid of instantaneous photography.</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 137, 137 (1897).</li><li>Worthington, A. M., Cole, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+with+a+liquid+surface+studied+by+the+aid+of+instantaneous+photography.+Paper+II.">Impact with a liquid surface studied by the aid of instantaneous photography. Paper II.</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. , 175 (1900).</li><li>Duez, C., Ybert, C., Clanet, C., Bocquet, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+a+splash+with+water+repellency.">Making a splash with water repellency.</a> Nature Physics. 3, 180-183 (2007).</li><li>Tan, B. C. W., Thomas, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+an+upper+layer+liquid+on+the+phenomena+and+cavity+formation+associated+with+the+entry+of+solid+spheres+into+a+stratified+two-layer+system+of+immiscible+liquids.">Influence of an upper layer liquid on the phenomena and cavity formation associated with the entry of solid spheres into a stratified two-layer system of immiscible liquids.</a> Physics of Fluids. 30, 064104 (2018).</li><li>Shin, J., McMahon, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+tuning+of+a+splash.">The tuning of a splash.</a> Physics of Fluids. 2, 1312-1317 (1990).</li><li>Krishnan, S. R., Seelamantula, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+selection+of+optimum+Savitzky-Golay+filters.">On the selection of optimum Savitzky-Golay filters.</a> IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 61, 380-391 (2013).</li><li>Cheny, J., Walters, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extravagant+viscoelastic+effects+in+the+Worthington+jet+experiment.">Extravagant viscoelastic effects in the Worthington jet experiment.</a> Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics. 67, 125-135 (1996).</li><li>Castillo-Orozco, E., Davanlou, A., Choudhur, P. K., Kumar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Droplet+impact+on+deep+liquid+pools:+Rayleigh+jet+to+formation+of+secondary+droplets.">Droplet impact on deep liquid pools: Rayleigh jet to formation of secondary droplets.</a> Physical Review E. 92, (2015).</li><li>Aristoff, J. M., Truscott, T. T., Techet, A. H., Bush, J. W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+water+entry+cavity+formed+by+low+bond+number+impacts.">The water entry cavity formed by low bond number impacts.</a> Physics of Fluids. 20, 091111 (2008).</li><li>Aristoff, J., Bush, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+entry+of+small+hydrophobic+spheres.">Water entry of small hydrophobic spheres.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 619, 45-78 (2009).</li><li>Aristoff, J., Truscott, T., Techet, A., Bush, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+water+entry+of+decelerating+spheres.">The water entry of decelerating spheres.</a> Physics of Fluids. 22, (2010).</li><li>Truscott, T., Epps, B., Techet, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unsteady+forces+on+spheres+during+free-surface+water+entry.">Unsteady forces on spheres during free-surface water entry.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 704, 173-210 (2012).</li><li>Truscott, T. T., Epps, B. P., Belden, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+entry+of+projectiles.">Water entry of projectiles.</a> Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 46, 355-378 (2013).</li><li>Gekle, S., Gordillo, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+and+breakup+of+Worthington+jets+after+cavity+collapse+part+1.">Generation and breakup of Worthington jets after cavity collapse part 1.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 663, 293-330 (2010).</li><li>Cross, R., Lindsey, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+the+drag+force+on+a+falling+ball.">Measuring the drag force on a falling ball.</a> The Physics Teacher. 169, (2014).</li><li>Cross, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vertical+impact+of+a+sphere+falling+into+water.">Vertical impact of a sphere falling into water.</a> The Physics Teacher. , 153 (2016).</li><li>Dickerson, A. K., Shankles, P., Madhavan, N., Hu, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mosquitoes+survive+raindrop+collisions+by+virtue+of+their+low+mass.">Mosquitoes survive raindrop collisions by virtue of their low mass.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (25), 9822-9827 (2012).</li><li>Dickerson, A. K., Shankles, P., Hu, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Raindrops+push+and+splash+flying+insects.">Raindrops push and splash flying insects.</a> Physics of Fluids. 26, 02710 (2014).</li></ol>

This protocol describes the experimental design and best practices for investigations of free-falling spheres onto a deep liquid pool. We begin by highlighting steps necessary for configuring the experiment for vertical impacts. It is important to create an ideal splash environment with the use of a sufficiently large splash zone such that wall effects are negligible9, and a suitable visual scale for extracting kinematics12,13,<...

The characterization of splash dynamics arising from vertical impacts of solid objects on a deep liquid pool1 is applicable to military, naval and industrial applications such as ballistic missile water entry and sea surface landing2,3,4,5. The first studies of water entry were conducted well more than a century ago6,7. Here, we establish clear in-depth protocols and best practices for achieving consistent results for water entry investigations. To aid valid experimental design, a method is presented for the maintenance of sanitary conditions, alteration of interfacial conditions, control of dimensionless parameters, chemical modification of impactor surface, and visualization of splash kinematics.
Vertical impacts of free-falling hydrophilic spheres on the quiescent fluid show no sign of air-entrapment at low velocities8. We find that the placement of thin penetrable fabrics atop the fluid surface causes cavity formation due to forced flow separation1. A meager amount of fabric on the surface amplifies splashing across a range of moderate Weber numbers while sufficient layering attenuates splashing as spheres overcome drag at fluid entry1. In this article, we explain protocols suitable for establishing the effects of material strength on the water entry of hydrophilic spheres.
Cavity forming splashes from hydrophobic impactors show the ascension of a well-developed splash crown, followed by the protrusion of the primary jet high above the surface when compared to their water-liking counterparts8. Here, we present an approach for achieving water repellency through chemically modifying the surface of hydrophilic spheres.
With the advent of high-speed cameras, splash visualization and characterization have become more attainable. Even so, established standards in the field call for the use of a single camera orthogonal to the primary axis of travel. We show that the use of an additional high-speed camera for overhead views is necessary to adjudge spheres strike the intended location.

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impacts of free-falling spheres on a deep liquid pool with altered fluid and impactor surface conditions

Vertical impacts of spheres on clean water have been the subject of numerous water entry investigations characterizing cavity formation, splash crown ascension and Worthington jet stability. Here, we establish experimental protocols for examining splash dynamics when smooth free-falling spheres of varying wettability, mass, and diameter impact the free surface of a deep liquid pool modified by thin penetrable fabrics and liquid surfactants. Water entry investigations provide accessible, easily assembled and executed experiments for studying complex fluid mechanics. We present herein a tunable protocol for characterizing splash height, flow separation metrics, and impactor kinematics, and representative results which might be acquired if reproducing our approach. The methods are applicable when characteristic splash dimensions remain below approximately 0.5 m. However, this protocol may be adapted for greater impactor release heights and impact velocities, which augurs well for translating results to naval and industry applications.

This established protocols allow for the observance of the Worthington jets arising from vertical impacts over a range of Weber numbers <img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/59300/59300eq5.jpg" /> as seen in Figure 2c. These results are published in Watson et al.1, which can be referenced for the exact experimental conditions used to produce the data presented herein. We focus on the narrow elongated film of fluid protruding abo...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Impacts of Free-falling Spheres on a Deep Liquid Pool with Altered Fluid and Impactor Surface Conditions at JoVE.com

Impacts of Free-falling Spheres on a Deep Liquid Pool with Altered Fluid and Impactor Surface Conditions

This protocol demonstrates the basic experimental configuration for water entry experiments with free-falling spheres. Methods for the alteration of liquid surface with penetrable fabrics, the preparation of chemically non-wetting spheres, and steps for splash visualization and data extraction are discussed.

Vertical impacts of spheres on clean water have been the subject of numerous water entry investigations characterizing cavity formation, splash crown ...

This protocol demonstrate water inject experiments with free-fall spheres. The alternations of liquid surfaces with penetrated fabrics, the preparation of chemical in emerging spheres, splash visualization, and data extraction are discussed. These techniques provide insight into fundamental fluid dynamics research geared towards understanding interfacial interactions between solid objects and fluid bodies.Demonstrating the procedure will be Joshua Bom and Jeremy Stephen, undergraduate students from Alberta. Wear industrial grade nitrile gloves throughout this procedure to avoid contaminating the water and impactors with skin oils. To begin thoroughly clean transparent tank with tap water and detergent.Then fill it with a 32 liters of tap water. Clean two metric rulers with 99%isopropyl alcohol and let them dry for one minute. Mount one ruler facing the front of the tank with the base just touching the water.Fix the second ruler vertically underwater. Then secure an hinged platform over the tank so that the platform is within the same depth plane as the above water ruler with respect to the front of the tank. Adjust the platform to the maximum desired drop height then attached a multi LED light to an articulating arm and position the light above and in front of the tank to fully illuminate the splash zone under the platform.Set a black screen at the back of the tank to help with splash and cavity visualization. Lay a clean oil free shock absorber such as a closed cell sponge at the bottom of the tank and hold it in place with clean weights. Next, mount a high speed camera facing the tank in line with the surface of the fluid.Connect a trigger switch to the camera if desired. Connect the camera to a computer and configure the camera for a frame rate of at least 1, 000 frames per second. Choose the desired resolution and set the shutter speed to one per framed second.If applicable set the trigger mode to End. Next, clean a small scoop and polyoxide methanol spheres with 99%isopropyl alcohol to remove skin oils and other contaminates. Allow the spheres and scoop to dry for one minute.Preform test trials and adjust the camera position, focus, and resolution to achieve the optimal visualization quality for the splash event. Then retrieve the spheres with a scoop and clean the spheres and scoop with isopropyl alcohol. When ready to begin the experiment start filming the tank.Lift the hinge platform into place and rest a clean dry sphere on the platform. Release the base of the platform to drop the sphere into the tank. Then stop filming, save the video file, and trim the video to show only the splash event.When ready to proceed to the next test retrieve the sphere with the scoop. Clean the sphere with isopropyl alcohol and let it dry for one minute before repeating the test. When the experiment is finished empty the tank and let it dry.To prepare penetrable fabrics for the test separate the desired fabrics into square or round plies and use Vernier calipers to measure the compressed thickness of the dry fabric. When setting up the experiment mount a second high speed camera over the tank to provide a top down view of the sphere impacting the fabric. Connect the horizontal camera outputs to the overhead camera input terminals with BNC cables.Connect a trigger switch to the horizontal camera. Then use Ethernet cables to connect both cameras to an offline router connected to the camera computer. Focus and configure both cameras as usual.When ready to preform the experiment gently rest the dry fabric on the surface of the liquid in the tank. Insure that the fabric does not start sinking before the trial begins. Use a clean, oil free scoop to position the fabric below the hinged platform.Use the trigger switch to start simultaneously filming the splash zone with both cameras before setting up the collision. Remove the fabric immediately after the collision. If the fabric fragments on impact and the scrapes can not be manually collected empty and clean the tank after every trial to insure that all fabric is removed.To begin preparing chemically hydrophobic spheres fit a polyoxide menthol sphere into an acrylic holder. Positioning spheres for a surface coating is the most difficult aspect of this protocol. Positioning is controlled with layer coat acrylic sheets that have holes slightly wider then the spheres.Spray the sphere with an hydrophobic base coat from about 15 to 30 centimeters away without soaking the surface of the sphere. Next, spray the sphere with the hydrophobic top coat from about 15 to 30 centimeters away without soaking the surface and let it dry for one to two minutes. Apply two or three more top coatings in the same way.Let the sphere dry for 30 minutes for light use or about 12 hours for full use. When preforming impact tests let the sphere dry completely after each trial rather then rinsing it with isopropyl alcohol. The hydrophobic coating will degrade after about 20 trials.To reuse this sphere remove the coating with 99%isopropyl alcohol and reapply the base and top coats as previously described. To begin the analysis import a high speed video of splash event into a video analysis software. Use the scaling tools to set the scaling value in centimeters based on the visible area of the ruler.Advance through the video to find a suitable frame showing splash crown ascension and air entrapment. Measure the splash crown height, the cavity width, and the cavity depth. Use the angle measurement tool to determine the separation angle.Advance further in the video to find a suitable frame showing Worthington Jet formation and measure the Worthington Jet height. Lastly, use the auto tracking feature to extract temporal position and velocity date for the impactor. If tracking is interrupted use manual tracking until automatic tracking can resume.Here this procedure was used to evaluate the effects of fabric on splashing from vertical impacts. The splash height with one ply was amplified relative to the splash height without fabric. The splash height with two plies was roughly equivalent to the splash height without fabric.The splashing was heavily attenuated with three and four plies. Minimal variation was observed across Weber numbers for cavity depth, splash ground height, and cavity width from spheres impacting a single ply of fabric. The spheres vertical positions were tracked underwater allowing the observation of greater decreases in underwater velocity with each added ply of fabric.Investigators must pay keen attention to the maintenance of sanitary experimental conditions during the experiment to obtain consistent and valid results. This technique is not restricted to the materials presented here and can be undertaking with materials of similar functionalities and capabilities. With introduction of an elevated reservoir such as a syring, this procedure can be upped for investigations of the vertical impacts of liquid droplets onto solid or a liquid surfaces.This protocol can also be preformed on an larger scale to generic greater impact velocities and an increase range of dimensionless parameters which all goes well for a Naval and industrial applications.

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Kinetics of a Particle: Impulse and Momentum

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Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds between 0 and 25 m/sec) and a spinning disk device (for examining surface speeds between 15 and 100 m/sec). The air cannon linear traverse is a pneumatic energy-powered system that is designed to accelerate a metal rail surface mounted on top of a wooden projectile. A pressurized cylinder fitted with a solenoid valve rapidly releases pressurized air into the barrel, forcing the projectile down the cannon barrel. The projectile travels beneath a spray nozzle, which impinges a liquid jet onto its metal upper surface, and the projectile then hits a stopping mechanism. A camera records the jet impingement, and a pressure transducer records the spray nozzle backpressure. The spinning disk set-up consists of a steel disk that reaches speeds of 500 to 3,000 rpm via a variable frequency drive (VFD) motor. A spray system similar to that of the air cannon generates a liquid jet that impinges onto the spinning disc, and cameras placed at several optical access points record the jet impingement. Video recordings of jet impingement processes are recorded and examined to determine whether the outcome of impingement is splash, splatter, or deposition. The apparatuses are the first that involve the high speed impingement of low-Reynolds-number liquid jets on high speed moving surfaces. In addition to its rail industry applications, the described technique may be used for technical and industrial purposes such as steelmaking and may be relevant to high-speed 3D printing.

Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds ...

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of biosensing devices. We report on a protocol of using KrF and ArF lasers irradiating Si (001) samples immersed in a liquid environment with low number of pulses and operating at moderately low pulse fluences to induce Si wettability modification. Wafers immersed for up to 4 hr in a 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution did not show measurable change in their initial contact angle (CA) ~75&#176;. However, the 500-pulse KrF and ArF lasers irradiation of such wafers in a microchamber filled with 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution at 250 and 65 mJ/cm2, respectively, has decreased the CA to near 15&#176;, indicating the formation of a superhydrophilic surface. The formation of OH-terminated Si (001), with no measurable change of the wafer&#8217;s surface morphology, has been confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements. The selective area irradiated samples were then immersed in a biotin-conjugated fluorescein-stained nanospheres solution for 2 hr, resulting in a successful immobilization of the nanospheres in the non-irradiated area. This illustrates the potential of&#160;the method for selective area biofunctionalization and fabrication of advanced Si-based biosensing architectures. We also describe a similar protocol of irradiation of wafers immersed in methanol (CH3OH) using ArF laser operating at pulse fluence of 65 mJ/cm2 and in situ formation of a strongly hydrophobic surface of Si (001) with the CA of 103&#176;. The XPS results indicate ArF laser induced formation of Si&#8211;(OCH3)x compounds responsible for the observed hydrophobicity. However, no such compounds were found by XPS on the Si surface irradiated by KrF laser in methanol, demonstrating the inability of the KrF laser to photodissociate methanol and create -OCH3 radicals.

We report on a process of in situ alteration of HF treated Si (001) surface into a hydrophilic or hydrophobic state by irradiating samples in microfluidic chambers filled with&#160;H2O2/H2O solution (0.01%-0.5%) or methanol solutions using pulsed UV laser of a relative low pulse fluence.

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of ...

Emission Spectroscopic Boundary Layer Investigation during Ablative Material Testing in Plasmatron

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution for future high-speed reentry missions. But despite the advancements made since Apollo, heat flux prediction remains an imperfect science and engineers resort to safety factors to determine the TPS thickness. This goes at the expense of embarked payload, hampering, for example, sample return missions. 
Ground testing in plasma wind-tunnels is currently the only affordable possibility for both material qualification and validation of material response codes. The subsonic 1.2MW Inductively Coupled Plasmatron facility at the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics is able to reproduce a wide range of reentry environments. This protocol describes a procedure for the study of the gas/surface interaction on ablative materials in high enthalpy flows and presents sample results of a non-pyrolyzing, ablating carbon fiber precursor. With this publication, the authors envisage the definition of a standard procedure, facilitating comparison with other laboratories and contributing to ongoing efforts to improve heat shield reliability and reduce design uncertainties.
The described core techniques are non-intrusive methods to track the material recession with a high-speed camera along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer, probed by emission spectroscopy. Although optical emission spectroscopy is limited to line-of-sight measurements and is further constrained to electronically excited atoms and molecules, its simplicity and broad applicability still make it the technique of choice for analysis of the reactive boundary layer. Recession of the ablating sample further requires that the distance of the measurement location with respect to the surface is known at all times during the experiment. Calibration of the optical system of the applied three spectrometers allowed quantitative comparison. At the fiber scale, results from a post-test microscopy analysis are presented.

Development of new ablative materials and their numerical modeling requires extensive experimental investigation. This protocol describes procedures for material response characterization in plasma flows with the core techniques being non-intrusive methods to track the material recession along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer by emission spectroscopy.

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution ...

Preparation of Liquid-exfoliated Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Nanosheets with Controlled Size and Thickness: A State of the Art Protocol

We summarize recent advances in the production of liquid-exfoliated transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) nanosheets with controlled size and thickness. Layered crystals of molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) and tungsten disulphide (WS2) are exfoliated in aqueous surfactant solution by sonication. This yields highly polydisperse mixtures containing nanosheets with broad size and thickness distributions. However, for most purposes, specific sizes (in terms of both lateral dimension and thickness) are required. For example, large and thin nanosheets are desired for (opto) electronic applications, while laterally small nanosheets are interesting for catalytic applications. Therefore, post-exfoliation size selection is an important step that we address here. We provide a detailed protocol on the efficient size selection in large quantities by liquid cascade centrifugation and the size and thickness quantification by statistical microscopic analysis (atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy). The comparison of MoS2 and WS2 shows that both materials are size-selected in a similar way by the same procedure. Importantly, the dispersions of size-selected nanosheets show systematic changes in their optical extinction spectra with size due to edge and confinement effects. We show how these optical changes are related quantitatively to the nanosheets dimensions and describe how mean nanosheets length and layer number can be extracted reliably from the extinction spectra. The exfoliation and size selection protocol can be applied to a broad range of layered crystals as we have previously demonstrated for graphene, gallium sulphide (GaS) and black phosphorus.

A protocol for the liquid exfoliation of layered materials to nanosheets, their size selection and size measurement by microscopic and spectroscopic techniques is presented.

We summarize recent advances in the production of liquid-exfoliated transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) nanosheets with controlled size and thickness. ...

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Preparation and High-temperature Anti-adhesion Behavior of a Slippery Surface on Stainless Steel

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A typical anti-wetting superhydrophobic surface easily fails when exposed to a high-temperature liquid. Recently, Nepenthes-inspired slippery surfaces demonstrated a new way to solve the adhesion problem. A lubricant layer on the slippery surface can act as a barrier between the repelled materials and the surface structure. However, the slippery surfaces in previous studies rarely showed high-temperature resistance. Here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of slippery surfaces with high-temperature resistance. A photolithography-assisted method was used to fabricate pillar structures on stainless steel. By functionalizing the surface with saline, a slippery surface was prepared by adding silicone oil. The prepared slippery surface maintained the anti-wetting property for water, even when the surface was heated to 300 &#176;C. Also, the slippery surface exhibited great anti-adhesion effects on soft tissues at high temperatures. This type of slippery surface on stainless steel has applications in medical devices, mechanical equipment, etc.

Slippery surfaces provide a new way to solve the adhesion problem. This protocol describes how to fabricate slippery surfaces at high temperatures. The results demonstrate that the slippery surfaces showed anti-wetting for liquids and a remarkable anti-adhesion effect on soft tissues at high temperatures.

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A ...

Effective Analysis of Human Exposure Conditions with Body-worn Dosimeters in the 2.4 GHz Band

A well-defined experimental procedure is put forward to evaluate maximum exposure conditions in a worst-case scenario whilst avoiding the uncertainties caused by the use of personal exposimeters (PEMs) as measuring devices: the body shadow effect (BSE), the limited sensitivity range, and the non-identification of the radiation source. An upper bound for exposure levels to EMF in several indoor enclosures has been measured and simulated. The frequency used for the study is 2.4 GHz, as it is the most commonly used band in indoor communications. Although recorded values are well below the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference levels, there is a particular need to provide reliable exposure levels within particularly sensitive environments. In terms of electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure, limits established in national and international standards for health protection have been set for unperturbed exposure conditions; that is, for real and objective exposure data that have not been altered in any way.

This study describes a protocol to measure exposure levels in the 2.4 GHz band, avoiding the uncertainties caused by the use of personal exposimeters as measuring devices. These alterations of the exposure levels should be taken into account, especially in compliance testing, where exposure limits are defined from non-perturbed data.

A well-defined experimental procedure is put forward to evaluate maximum exposure conditions in a worst-case scenario whilst avoiding the uncertainties ...

Visually Based Characterization of the Incipient Particle Motion in Regular Substrates: From Laminar to Turbulent Conditions

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to turbulent flow conditions are presented. For that purpose, the incipient motion of a single bead is studied on regular substrates that consist of a monolayer of fixed spheres of uniform size that are regularly arranged in triangular and quadratic symmetries. The threshold is characterized by the critical Shields number. The criterion for the onset of motion is defined as the displacement from the original equilibrium position to the neighboring one. The displacement and the mode of motion are identified with an imaging system. The laminar flow is induced using a rotational rheometer with a parallel disk configuration. The shear Reynolds number remains below 1. The turbulent flow is induced in a low-speed wind tunnel with open jet test section. The air velocity is regulated with a frequency converter on the blower fan. The velocity profile is measured with a hot wire probe connected to a hot film anemometer. The shear Reynolds number ranges between 40 and 150. The logarithmic velocity law and the modified wall law presented by Rotta are used to infer the shear velocity from the experimental data. The latter is of special interest when the mobile bead is partially exposed to the turbulent flow in the so-called hydraulically transitional flow regime. The shear stress is estimated at onset of motion. Some illustrative results showing the strong impact of the angle of repose, and the exposure of the bead to shear flow are represented in both regimes.

Two different methods for characterizing the incipient particle motion of a single bead as a function of the sediment bed geometry from laminar to turbulent flow are presented.

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to ...

Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Metal Surfaces for Anti-Icing Applications

Several ways to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces are presented in this work. Aluminum was chosen as the metal substrate due to its wide use in industry. The wettability of the produced surface was analyzed by bouncing drop experiments and the topography was analyzed by confocal microscopy. In addition, we show various methodologies to measure its durability and anti-icing properties. Superhydrophobic surfaces hold a special texture that must be preserved to keep their water-repellency. To fabricate durable surfaces, we followed two strategies to incorporate a resistant texture. The first strategy is a direct incorporation of roughness to the metal substrate by acid etching. After this surface texturization, the surface energy was decreased by silanization or fluoropolymer deposition. The second strategy is the growth of a ceria layer (after surface texturization) that should enhance the surface hardness and corrosion resistance. The surface energy was decreased with a stearic acid film.
The durability of the superhydrophobic surfaces was examined by a particle impact test, mechanical wear by lateral abrasion, and UV-ozone resistance. The anti-icing properties were explored by studying the ability to repeal subcooled water, freezing delay, and ice adhesion.

We illustrate several methodologies to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces and to explore their durability and anti-icing properties.

Several ways to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces are presented in this work. Aluminum was chosen as the metal substrate due to its wide use in ...

Microparticle Manipulation by Standing Surface Acoustic Waves with Dual-frequency Excitations

We demonstrate a method for increasing the tuning ability of a standing surface acoustic wave (SSAW) for microparticles manipulation in a lab-on-a-chip (LOC) system. The simultaneous excitation of the fundamental frequency and its third harmonic, which is termed as dual-frequency excitation, to a pair of interdigital transducers (IDTs) could generate a new type of standing acoustic waves in a microfluidic channel. Varying the power and the phase in the dual-frequency excitation signals results in a reconfigurable field of the acoustic radiation force applied to the microparticles across the microchannel (e.g., the number and location of the pressure nodes and the microparticle concentrations at the corresponding pressure nodes). This article demonstrates that the motion time of the microparticle to only one pressure node can be reduced ~2-fold at the power ratio of the fundamental frequency greater than ~90%. In contrast, there are three pressure nodes in the microchannel if less than this threshold. Furthermore, adjusting the initial phase between the fundamental frequency and the third harmonic results in different motion rates of the three SSAW pressure nodes, as well as in the percentage of microparticles at each pressure node in the microchannel. There is a good agreement between the experimental observation and the numerical predictions. This novel excitation method can easily and non-invasively integrate into the LOC system, with a wide tenability and only a few changes to the experimental set-up.

A protocol for manipulating the microparticles in a microfluidic channel with a dual-frequency excitation is presented.

We demonstrate a method for increasing the tuning ability of a standing surface acoustic wave (SSAW) for microparticles manipulation in a lab-on-a-chip ...