&#65279;This study was supported by a &#65279;a VIDI grant of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) (no. 016.Vidi.171.023) to R. v. B.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Presented here is a method to detect mutations that accumulated during life in individual HSPCs and to construct an early developmental lineage tree using these mutation data.
Several critical requirements must be met in order to successfully perform these assays. First, the viability of the sample must be ensured. Quick handling of the sample is key to ensure the efficiency of the procedure. Second, loss of growth factor potency will negatively affect the clonal expansion of HSPCs. To ensure high growth factor potency, it is important to avoid freeze-thaw cycles and prepare single-use aliquots. Third, after performing WGS, mutation calling and filtering, it is crucial to validate the clonality of the clonal culture. To confirm the clonality of the culture, the VAF of the mutations should cluster around of 0.5 in a karyotypically normal sample (Figure 3). In cells with a low mutational load, such as cord blood HSPCs, it is more difficult to determine clonality due to the low mutation numbers.
Our approach relies on in vitro expansion of single cells to allow for WGS. Therefore, our approach is restricted to cells that have the replicative potential to clonally expand, such as HSPCs. In our hands, about 5%-30% of all single-sorted cells are able to expand adequately. Reduced outgrowth rates can potentially result in a selection bias. As discussed previously, methods using WGA can overcome this selection bias as this technique is does not rely on the expansion of cells. However, WGA has its own shortcomings, and clonal amplification remains the only method to accurately determine the number of mutations in the whole genome without allelic dropouts and equal coverage along the genome, especially in samples with low true somatic mutation numbers.
The data generated using this approach can be used to determine phylogenies of the hematopoietic system, as the mutations detected in single cells can be used to dissect cell lineages, as depicted in Figure 6. Typically, one or two mutations can define each branch in a healthy donor1. Since lineages branch early after conception, mutations defining these first branches will also be present with a low VAF in the matched normal sample that was used for filtering the germline variants1,18,19. In this case, the use of non-hematopoietic cells, such as MSCs, are preferred as they are expected to separate very early during development from the hematopoietic system. As T-cells are of hematopoietic origin, the use of these cells as a matched normal sample to filter germline variants could therefore confound the construction of the earliest branching of the developmental lineage tree. Subclonal presence of branch-specific mutations in certain mature blood populations, which can be measured by targeted deep sequencing, will indicate that the progeny of that branch can give rise to that mature cell type. In addition, our approach allows for assessing the mutational consequences of mutagenic exposure in vivo and ultimately how this may contribute to leukemia development.

Exposure of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) to endogenous or extrinsic mutagenic sources contributes to the gradual accumulation of mutations in the DNA during a lifespan1. Gradual mutation accumulation in HSPCs1 can result in age-related clonal hematopoiesis (ARCH)2,3, which is a non-symptomatic condition driven by HSPCs carrying leukemia-driver mutations. Initially, it was thought that individuals with ARCH have an increased risk for leukemia2,3. However, recent studies have shown an incidence of 95% of ARCH in elderly individuals4, making the association with malignancies less clear and raising the question of why some individuals with ARCH eventually do or do not develop malignancies. Nonetheless, somatic mutations in HSPCs can pose serious health risks, as myelodysplastic disorders and leukemia are characterized by the presence of specific cancer driver mutations.
To identify the mutational processes and study blood clonality, mutation accumulation in individual HSPCs needs to be characterized. Mutational processes leave characteristic patterns in the genome, so-called mutational signatures, which can be identified and quantified in genome-wide collections of mutations5. For instance, exposure to UV light, alkylating agents, and defects in DNA repair pathways have each been associated with a different mutational signature6,7. In addition, due to the stochastic nature of mutation accumulations, most (if not all) of the acquired mutations are unique between cells. If mutations are shared between multiple cells of the same individual, it indicates that these cells share a common ancestor8. Therefore, by assessing shared mutations, lineage relationships can be determined between cells and a developmental lineage tree can be constructed branch by branch. However, cataloguing rare somatic mutations in physiologically normal cells is technically challenging due to the polyclonal nature of healthy tissues.
Presented here is a method to accurately identify and determine somatic mutations in the genomes of individual HSPCs. This involves the isolation and clonal expansion of HSPCs in vitro. These clonal cultures reflect the genetic makeup of the original cell (i.e., mutations in the original cell will be shared by all other cells in the culture). This approach allows us to obtain sufficient DNA for whole genome sequencing (WGS). We have previously shown that mutations accumulated in vitro during clonal culture will be shared by a subset of cells. This enables the filtering of all in vitro mutations, as these will be present in a smaller fraction of reads compared to in vivo acquired mutations9. Previous methods have obtained sufficient DNA from a single cell for WGS using whole-genome amplification (WGA)10. However, the main disadvantage of WGA is its relatively error-prone and unbalanced amplification of the genome, which can result in allele dropouts11. Nonetheless, as this approach relies on in vitro expansion of single cells, it is limited to blood cells with sufficient replicative potential, which is not the case for WGA-dependent methods. Earlier efforts sequencing clonal cultures have relied on using feeder layers to ensure clonal amplification of single HSPCs12. However, DNA from the feeder layers can potentially contaminate the DNA of the clonal cultures, confounding the subsequent mutation calling and filtering. The method presented here solely relies on specified medium to clonally expand single HSPCs, and therefore avoids the issue of DNA contamination. Until now, we have successfully applied this method on human bone marrow, cord blood, viably frozen bone marrow, and peripheral blood.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.20 &#181;m syringe filter</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431219</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Syringe, Luer lock</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>613-3925</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9647-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD11c FITC</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>301603</td>
			<td>Clone 3.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD16 FITC</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>302005</td>
			<td>Clone 3G8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD3 BV650</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>300467</td>
			<td>Clone UCHT1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD34 BV421</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>343609</td>
			<td>561</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD38 PE</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>303505</td>
			<td>Clone HIT2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD45RA PerCP/Cy5.5</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>304121</td>
			<td>Clone HI100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD49f PE/Cy7</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>313621</td>
			<td>Clone GoH3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD90 APC</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>328113</td>
			<td>Clone 5E10</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Strainer 5 mL tube</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>352235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CELLSTAR plate, 384w, 130 &#181;L, F-bottom, TC, cover</td>
			<td>Greiner</td>
			<td>781182</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryogenic vial</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>430487</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D2650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F12</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>61965059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E4884-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>10500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GlutaMAX</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>25030081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human Flt3-Ligand, premium grade</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotech</td>
			<td>130-096-479</td>
			<td>Reconsititute in single-use aliquots (25 &#956;L) at 100 &#956;g/mL in 0.1% BSA in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human Recombinant IL-3 (E. coli-expressed)</td>
			<td>Stem Cell Technologies</td>
			<td>78040.1</td>
			<td>Reconsititute in single-use aliquots (2.5 &#956;L) at 100 &#956;g/mL in 0.1% BSA in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human Recombinant IL-6 (E. coli-expressed)</td>
			<td>Stem Cell Technologies</td>
			<td>78050.1</td>
			<td>Reconsititute in single-use aliquots (5 &#956;L) at 100 &#956;g/mL in 0.1% BSA in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human SCF, premium grade</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotech</td>
			<td>130-096-695</td>
			<td>Reconsititute in single-use aliquots (25 &#956;L) at 100 &#956;g/mL in 0.1% BSA in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human TPO, premium grade</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotech</td>
			<td>130-095-752</td>
			<td>Reconsititute in single-use aliquots (12.5 &#956;L) at 100 &#956;g/mL in 0.1% BSA in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Integrative Genomics Viewer 2.4</td>
			<td>Broad Institute</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://software.broadinstitute.org/software/igv/download</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iscove&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>12440061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lineage (CD3/14/19/20/56) FITC</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>348701</td>
			<td>Clones: UCHT1, HCD14, HIB19, 2H7, HCD56</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lymphoprep</td>
			<td>Stem Cell Technologies</td>
			<td>#07861</td>
			<td>Used for Density gradient separation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Made in at Institute&#39;s facility. Commerically available PBS can also be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primocin</td>
			<td>Invivogen</td>
			<td>ant-pm-1</td>
			<td>Antibiotic formulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAamp DNA Micro Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>56304</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qubit 2.0 fluorometer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>Q32866</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qubit dsDNA HS Assay Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>Q32854</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNAse A</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>19101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SH800S Cell Sorter</td>
			<td>Sony</td>
			<td>SH800S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>StemSpan SFEM, 500mL</td>
			<td>Stem Cell Technologies</td>
			<td>9650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TE BUFFER PH 8.0, LOW EDTA</td>
			<td>G-Biosciences</td>
			<td>786-151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrypLE Express</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>12605-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterizing mutational load and clonal composition of human blood

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) gradually accumulate DNA mutations during a lifespan, which can contribute to age-associated diseases such as leukemia. Characterizing mutation accumulation can improve understanding of the etiology of age-associated diseases. Presented here is a method to catalogue somatic mutations in individual HSPCs, which is based on whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of clonal primary cell cultures. Mutations that are present in the original cell are shared by all cells in the clonal culture, whereas mutations acquired in vitro after cell sorting are present in a subset of cells. Therefore, this method allows for accurate detection of somatic mutations present in the genomes of individual HSPCs, which accumulate during life. These catalogues of somatic mutations can provide valuable insights into mutational processes active in the hematopoietic tissue and how these processes contribute to leukemogenesis. In addition, by assessing somatic mutations that are shared between multiple HSPCs of the same individual, clonal lineage relationships and population dynamics of blood populations can be determined. As this approach relies on in vitro expansion of single cells, the method is limited to hematopoietic cells with sufficient replicative potential.

Experimental procedure 
The experimental workflow is depicted in Figure 1. Based on the type of input material, different steps must be followed. In Figure 2 a flow cytometric output of a cord blood cell sort is depicted. First, all monocytic cells are selected by loosely drawing a gate around this population. Then, singlets are isolated by selecting for cells with a linear FSC-H/FSC-A ratio, as a lower FSC-H/FSC-A ratio includes doublets or cell clumps. The unstained control sample is used to define cell sorting gates for lineage-, CD34+, CD38-, CD45RA-. Additionally, CD90 and CD49f can be used to distinguish between progenitor cells or self-renewing stem cells17 (Figure 2). Index sorting enables the re-tracing of individual cells, and the sorted cells are depicted as brown dots. During cell culture, individual clones can expand at a different pace, with some clones expanding within 3 weeks, while other clones are only fully expanded until the fifth week of culture. See Figure 3A,B for representative colony outgrowth. A representative picture is shown of a nearly confluent MSC bulk culture at 11 days after plating (Figure 3C).
Checking quality after sequencing and mutation analysis 
Shown is an example output of the copy number analysis generated by Control-FreeC14 to check for copy number alterations (Figure 4). Karyotypic information can indicate which chromosomes to exclude during a SNVFI run (step 7.6). The VAF plot created by SNVFI (Figure 5) is a histogram of variant allele frequencies in the sample. A peak in the density plot at 0.5 indicates the sample is clonal. To get more insight in the underlying biological causes behind mutations, these can be analyzed using the R package MutationalPatterns15. Depicted here is a typical analysis producing a 96-trinucleotide plot (Figure 6). In addition to quantification of different mutation types, signature extraction can be also performed with this tool.
Constructing a developmental lineage tree 
Mutations shared amongst clones or present in a clone (and at low VAF) in the germline control are validated using IGV. Mutations are considered true when present in the sample and not at high VAF levels in the germline (Figure 7A). Mutations are considered false when not present in IGV, which can happen in poorly mapped regions (Figure 7B). In other cases, events detected by SNVFI are missed germline mutations (Figure 7C). Independent re-sequencing of mutations by targeted re-sequencing is highly recommended for these mutations in selected clones. &#160;After detection of shared somatic mutations between clones, a binary matrix is generated (step 10.8). A heatmap is constructed containing cells with and without the shared mutations A-M. Above this heatmap the developmental lineage tree is indicated (Figure 8).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Flowchart depicting experimental procedure based on input material. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Cell sorting strategy. First, gating is performed on small mononuclear cells. Second, single cells are gated by selection of the linear fraction. Lineage negative cells are gated. All CD34+ CD38- CD45- cells are single cell-sorted. The fraction of cells in brown should be noted, which are the sorted cells highlighted by the option &#8220;index sorting&#8221;. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative cell culture results. Representative HSPC clones in a 384 well plate at (A) 2 weeks after plating and (B) 4 weeks after plating. (C) MSC culture after 2 weeks of medium replacement. Scale bar = 100 &#956;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Karyotypes. (A) Clonal HSPC culture and (B) MSC bulk sample. The karyotypes were determined by read-depth analysis. Both graphs indicate a karyotypically normal sample. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Histogram of variant allele frequencies. Histogram of variant allele frequencies of the variants in a clone before the last filtering step of SNVFI (VAF &#62;0.3). A peak at VAF = 0.5 indicates that the sample is clonal. The subclonal mutations with low VAF are excluded during last filtering step of SNVFI (VAF &#62;0.3). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Representative mutational spectrum analysis of somatic mutations in a HSPC sample. Depicted is the relative contribution of each trinucleotide change (of which the middle base is mutated) to the total spectrum. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Manual inspection of mutations using IGV16. (A) Mutations are considered true when present in the clone and not in the bulk sample. (B) Mutations are considered as false positives when present in a poorly mapped region. (C) Mutations are considered as false positives when present in a germline control. The vertical line indicates the position of a called mutation. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: Construction of a developmental lineage tree. Depicted is a dendrogram indicating developmental lineages splitting off during development. The heatmap under the dendrogram indicates the presence of mutations in different clones. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59846/59846fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterizing Mutational Load and Clonal Composition of Human Blood at JoVE.com

Characterizing Mutational Load and Clonal Composition of Human Blood

Somatic mutation patterns in cells reflect previous mutagenic exposure and can reveal developmental lineage relationships. Presented here is a methodology to catalogue and analyze somatic mutations in individual hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) gradually accumulate DNA mutations during a lifespan, which can contribute to age-associated diseases such ...

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7.2K Views.  Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology. Somatic mutation patterns in cells reflect previous mutagenic exposure and can reveal developmental lineage relationships. Presented here is a methodology to catalogue and analyze somatic mutations in individual hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Video: Characterizing Mutational Load and Clonal Composition of Human Blood

In Situ Labeling of Mitochondrial DNA Replication in Drosophila Adult Ovaries by EdU Staining

The mitochondrial genome is inherited exclusively through the maternal line. Understanding of how the mitochondrion and its genome are proliferated and transmitted from one generation to the next through the female oocyte is of fundamental importance. Because of the genetic tractability, and the elegant, ordered simplicity by which oocyte development proceeds, Drosophila oogenesis has become an invaluable system for mitochondrial study. An EdU (5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine) labeling method was utilized to detect mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication in Drosophila ovaries. This method is superior to the BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) labeling method in that it allows for good structural preservation and efficient fluorescent dye penetration of whole-mount tissues.
Here we describe a detailed protocol for labeling replicating mitochondrial DNA in Drosophila adult ovaries with EdU. Some technical solutions are offered to improve the viability of the ovaries, maintain their health during preparation, and ensure high-quality imaging. Visualization of newly synthesized mtDNA in the ovaries not only reveals the striking temporal and spatial pattern of mtDNA replication through oogenesis, but also allows for simple quantification of mtDNA replication under various genetic and pharmacological perturbations.

In Situ Labeling of Mitochondrial DNA Replication in Drosophila Adult Ovaries by EdU Staining

Drosophila oogenesis continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of mitochondrial proliferation and inheritance. This manuscript describes a detailed protocol used to label the replicating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in Drosophila adult ovaries with 5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine (EdU), which facilitates uncovering mechanisms associated with mitochondrial inheritance that were previously debatable.

The mitochondrial genome is inherited exclusively through the maternal line. Understanding of how the mitochondrion and its genome are proliferated and ...

Pooled shRNA Screen for Reactivation of MeCP2 on the Inactive X Chromosome

Forward genetic screens using reporter genes inserted into the heterochromatin have been extensively used to investigate mechanisms of epigenetic control in model organisms. Technologies including short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) have enabled such screens in diploid mammalian cells. Here we describe a large-scale shRNA screen for regulators of X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), using a murine cell line with firefly luciferase and hygromycin resistance genes knocked in at the C-terminus of the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene on the inactive X-chromosome (Xi). Reactivation of the construct in the reporter cell line conferred survival advantage under hygromycin B selection, enabling us to screen a large shRNA library and identify hairpins that reactivated the reporter by measuring their post-selection enrichment using next-generation sequencing. The enriched hairpins were then individually validated by testing their ability to activate the luciferase reporter on Xi.

We report a small hairpin RNA (shRNA) and next generation sequencing-based protocol for identifying regulators of X-chromosome inactivation in a murine cell line with firefly luciferase and hygromycin resistance genes fused to the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene on the inactive X chromosome.

Forward genetic screens using reporter genes inserted into the heterochromatin have been extensively used to investigate mechanisms of epigenetic control ...

Highly Efficient Gene Disruption of Murine and Human Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells by CRISPR/Cas9

Advances in the hematopoietic stem cell (HSCs) field have been aided by methods to genetically engineer primary progenitor cells as well as animal models. Complete gene ablation in HSCs required the generation of knockout mice from which HSCs could be isolated, and gene ablation in primary human HSCs was not possible. Viral transduction could be used for knock-down approaches, but these suffered from variable efficacy. In general, genetic manipulation of human and mouse hematopoietic cells was hampered by low efficiencies and extensive time and cost commitments. Recently, CRISPR/Cas9 has dramatically expanded the ability to engineer the DNA of mammalian cells. However, the application of CRISPR/Cas9 to hematopoietic cells has been challenging, mainly due to their low transfection efficiencies, the toxicity of plasmid-based approaches and the slow turnaround time of virus-based protocols.
A rapid method to perform CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in murine and human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells with knockout efficiencies of up to 90% is provided in this article. This approach utilizes a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) delivery strategy with a streamlined three-day workflow. The use of Cas9-sgRNA RNP allows for a hit-and-run approach, introducing no exogenous DNA sequences in the genome of edited cells and reducing off-target effects. The RNP-based method is fast and straightforward: it does not require cloning of sgRNAs, virus preparation or specific sgRNA chemical modification. With this protocol, scientists should be able to successfully generate knockouts of a gene of interest in primary hematopoietic cells within a week, including downtimes for oligonucleotide synthesis. This approach will allow a much broader group of users to adapt this protocol for their needs.

A protocol for fast CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene disruption in mouse and human primary hematopoietic cells is described in this article. Cas9-sgRNA ribonucleoproteins are introduced via electroporation with sgRNAs generated through in vitro transcription and commercial Cas9. High editing efficiencies are achieved with limited time and financial cost.

Advances in the hematopoietic stem cell (HSCs) field have been aided by methods to genetically engineer primary progenitor cells as well as animal models. ...

Identification of Homologous Recombination Events in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells Using Southern Blotting and Polymerase Chain Reaction

Relative to the issues of off-target effects and the difficulty of inserting a long DNA fragment in the application of designer nucleases for genome editing, embryonic stem (ES) cell-based gene-targeting technology does not have these shortcomings and is widely used to modify animal/mouse genome ranging from large deletions/insertions to single nucleotide substitutions. Notably, identifying the relatively few homologous recombination (HR) events necessary to obtain desired ES clones is a key step, which demands accurate and reliable methods. Southern blotting and/or conventional PCR are often utilized for this purpose. Here, we describe the detailed procedures of using those two methods to identify HR events that occurred in mouse ES cells in which the endogenous Myh9 gene is intended to be disrupted and replaced by cDNAs encoding other nonmuscle myosin heavy chain IIs (NMHC IIs). The whole procedure of Southern blotting includes the construction of targeting vector(s), electroporation, drug selection, the expansion and storage of ES cells/clones, the preparation, digestion, and blotting of genomic DNA (gDNA), the hybridization and washing of probe(s), and a final step of autoradiography on the X-ray films. PCR can be performed directly with prepared and diluted gDNA. To obtain ideal results, the probes and restriction enzyme (RE) cutting sites for Southern blotting and the primers for PCR should be carefully planned. Though the execution of Southern blotting is time-consuming and labor-intensive and PCR results have false positives, the correct identification by Southern blotting and the rapid screening by PCR allow the sole or combined application of these methods described in this paper to be widely used and consulted by most labs in the identification of genotypes of ES cells and genetically modified animals.

Here, we present a detailed protocol for identifying homologous recombination events that occurred in mouse embryonic stem cells using Southern blotting and/or PCR. This method is exemplified by the generation of nonmuscle myosin II genetic replacement mouse models using traditional embryonic stem cell-based homologous recombination-mediated targeting technology.

Relative to the issues of off-target effects and the difficulty of inserting a long DNA fragment in the application of designer nucleases for genome ...

Characterizing Histone Post-translational Modification Alterations in Yeast Neurodegenerative Proteinopathy Models

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), cause the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives each year. Effective treatment options able to halt disease progression are lacking. Despite the extensive sequencing efforts in large patient populations, the majority of ALS and PD cases remain unexplained by genetic mutations alone. Epigenetics mechanisms, such as the post-translational modification of histone proteins, may be involved in neurodegenerative disease etiology and progression and lead to new targets for pharmaceutical intervention. Mammalian in vivo and in vitro models of ALS and PD are costly and often require prolonged and laborious experimental protocols. Here, we outline a practical, fast, and cost-effective approach to determining genome-wide alterations in histone modification levels using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system. This protocol allows for comprehensive investigations into epigenetic changes connected to neurodegenerative proteinopathies that corroborate previous findings in different model systems while significantly expanding our knowledge of the neurodegenerative disease epigenome.

This protocol outlines experimental procedures to characterize genome-wide changes in the levels of histone post-translational modifications (PTM) occurring in connection with the overexpression of proteins associated with ALS and Parkinson&#39;s disease in Saccharomyces cerevisiae models. After SDS-PAGE separation, individual histone PTM levels are detected with modification-specific antibodies via Western blotting.

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), cause the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives ...

Sequencing of mRNA from Whole Blood using Nanopore Sequencing

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, and was deployed to West Africa during the recent Ebola virus epidemic, highlighting this possibility. In addition to its practical advantages (low cost, ease of equipment transport and use), this technology also provides fundamental advantages over second-generation sequencing approaches, particularly the very long read length, ability to directly sequence RNA, and real-time availability of data. Raw read accuracy is lower than with other sequencing platforms, which represents the main limitation of this technology; however, this can be partially mitigated by the high read depth generated. Here, we present a field-compatible protocol for sequencing of the mRNAs encoding for Niemann-Pick C1, which is the cellular receptor for ebolaviruses. This protocol encompasses extraction of RNA from animal blood samples, followed by RT-PCR for target enrichment, barcoding, library preparation, and the sequencing run itself, and can be easily adapted for use with other DNA or RNA targets.

Nanopore sequencing is a novel technology that allows cost-effective sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings. Here, we present a protocol for sequencing of mRNAs from whole blood that is compatible with such conditions.

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, ...

Single-cell RNA Sequencing and Analysis of Human Pancreatic Islets

Pancreatic islets comprise of endocrine cells with distinctive hormone expression patterns. The endocrine cells show functional differences in response to normal and pathological conditions. The goal of this protocol is to generate high-quality, large-scale transcriptome data of each endocrine cell type with the use of a droplet-based microfluidic single-cell RNA sequencing technology. Such data can be utilized to build the gene expression profile of each endocrine cell type in normal or specific conditions. The process requires careful handling, accurate measurement, and rigorous quality control. In this protocol, we describe detailed steps for human pancreatic islets dissociation, sequencing, and data analysis. The representative results of about 20,000 human single islet cells demonstrate the successful application of the protocol.

Here, we present a protocol to generate high-quality, large-scale transcriptome data of single cells from isolated human pancreatic islets using a droplet-based microfluidic single-cell RNA sequencing technology.

Pancreatic islets comprise of endocrine cells with distinctive hormone expression patterns. The endocrine cells show functional differences in response to ...

A Murine Cell Line Based Model of Chronic CDK9 Inhibition to Study Widespread Non-Genetic Transcriptional Elongation Defects (TEdeff) in Cancers

We have previously reported that a subset of cancers is defined by global transcriptional deregulations with widespread deficiencies in mRNA transcription elongation (TE)&#8212;we call such cancers as TEdeff. Notably, TEdeff cancers are characterized by spurious transcription and faulty mRNA processing in a large set of genes, such as interferon/JAK/STAT and TNF/NF-&#954;B pathways, leading to their suppression. The TEdeff subtype of tumors in renal cell carcinoma and metastatic melanoma patients significantly correlate with poor response and outcome in immunotherapy. Given the importance of investigating TEdeff cancers&#8212;as it portends a significant roadblock against immunotherapy&#8212;the goal of this protocol is to establish an in vitro TEdeff mouse model to study these widespread, non-genetic transcriptional abnormalities in cancers and gain new insights, novel uses for existing drugs, or find new strategies against such cancers. We detail the use of chronic flavopiridol mediated CDK9 inhibition to abrogate phosphorylation of serine 2 residue on the C-terminal repeat domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II), suppressing the release of RNA Pol II into productive transcription elongation. Given that TEdeff cancers are not classified under any specific somatic mutation, a pharmacological model is advantageous, and best mimics the widespread transcriptional and epigenetic defects observed in them. The use of an optimized sublethal dose of flavopiridol is the only efficacious strategy in creating a generalizable model of non-genetic widespread disruption in transcription elongation and mRNA processing defects, closely mimicking the clinically observed TEdeff characteristics. Therefore, this model of TEdeff can be leveraged to dissect, cell-autonomous factors enabling them in resisting immune-mediated cell attack.

A Murine Cell Line Based Model of Chronic CDK9 Inhibition to Study Widespread Non-Genetic Transcriptional Elongation Defects TEdeff in Cancers

The protocol details an in vitro murine carcinoma model of non-genetic defective transcription elongation. Here, chronic inhibition of CDK9 is used to repress productive elongation of RNA Pol II along pro-inflammatory response genes to mimic and study the clinically observed TEdeff phenomenon, present in about 20% of all cancer types.

We have previously reported that a subset of cancers is defined by global transcriptional deregulations with widespread deficiencies in mRNA transcription ...

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding sites for transcriptional regulators to modulate gene expression. Alterations of CREs have been implicated in various diseases including cancer. While promoters and enhancers have been the primary CREs for studying gene regulation, very little is known about the role of silencer, which is another type of CRE that mediates gene repression. Originally identified as an adaptive immunity system in prokaryotes, CRISPR/Cas9 has been exploited to be a powerful tool for eukaryotic genome editing. Here, we present the use of this technique to delete an intronic silencer in the human RUNX1 gene and investigate the impacts on gene expression in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells. Our approach relies on electroporation-mediated delivery of two preassembled Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes to create two double-strand breaks (DSBs) that flank the silencer. Deletions can be readily screened by fragment analysis. Expression analyses of different mRNAs transcribed from alternative promoters help evaluate promoter-dependent effects. This strategy can be used to study other CREs and is particularly suitable for hematopoietic cells, which are often difficult to transfect with plasmid-based methods. The use of a plasmid- and virus-free strategy allows simple and fast assessments of gene regulatory functions.

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Direct delivery of preassembled Cas9/guide RNA ribonucleoprotein complexes is a fast and efficient means for genome editing in hematopoietic cells. Here, we utilize this approach to delete a RUNX1 intronic silencer and examine the transcriptional responses in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells.

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding ...

Microsatellite DNA Genotyping and Flow Cytometry Ploidy Analyses of Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded Hydatidiform Molar Tissues

Hydatidiform mole (HM) is an abnormal human pregnancy characterized by excessive trophoblastic proliferation and abnormal embryonic development. There are two types of HM based on microscopic morphological evaluation, complete HM (CHM) and partial HM (PHM). These can be further subdivided based on the parental contribution to the molar genomes. Such characterization of HM, by morphology and genotype analyses, is crucial for patient management and for the fundamental understanding of this intriguing pathology. It is well documented that morphological analysis of HM is subject to wide interobserver variability and is not sufficient on its own to accurately classify HM into CHM and PHM and distinguish them from hydropic non-molar abortions. Genotyping analysis is mostly performed on DNA and tissues from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) products of conception, which have less than optimal quality and may consequently lead to wrong conclusions. In this article, detailed protocols for multiplex genotyping and flow cytometry analyses of FFPE molar tissues are provided, along with the interpretation of the results of these methods, their troubleshooting, and integration with the morphological evaluation, p57KIP2 immunohistochemistry, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to reach a correct and robust diagnosis. Here, the authors share the methods and lessons learned in the past 10 years from the analysis of approximately 400 products of conception.

Hydatidiform moles are abnormal human pregnancies with heterogeneous aetiologies that can be classified according to their morphological features and parental contribution to the molar genomes. Here, protocols of multiplex microsatellite DNA genotyping and flow cytometry of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded molar tissues are described in detail, together with results&#8217; interpretation and integration.

Hydatidiform mole (HM) is an abnormal human pregnancy characterized by excessive trophoblastic proliferation and abnormal embryonic development. There are ...