Name: separation of the cell envelope for gram-negative bacteria into inner and outer membrane fractions with technical adjustments for acinetobacter baumannii
Uploaded: 2020-04-10T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii at J

This work was funded by P20GM10344 and R01AI139248 awarded to Z. D. Dalebroux.

1. General Reagents and Media Preparation for Membrane Extraction
<ol>
	<li>Bacterial growth media: Prepare and sterilize 1 L of broth media in a thoroughly cleaned and autoclaved 2 L flask.</li>
	<li>General resuspension buffer (1 M Tris Buffer pH 7.5; 50 mL): Dissolve 6.05 g of Tris base in 30 mL of H2O. Adjust pH to 7.5 with 5 M HCl. Adjust final volume to 50 mL with ultrapure H2O.</li>
	<li>Master stock of divalent cation chelation solution (0.5 M EDTA pH 8; 100 mL): Add 18.6 g of disodium eth...

<ol>
	<li>Silhavy, T. J., Kahne, D., Walker, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+bacterial+cell+envelope.">The bacterial cell envelope.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2, 000414 (2010).</li><li>Egan, A. J., Vollmer, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiology+of+bacterial+cell+division.">The physiology of bacterial cell division.</a> Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1277, 8-28 (2013).</li><li>Pazos, M., Peters, K., Vollmer, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Robust+peptidoglycan+growth+by+dynamic+and+variable+multi-protein+complexes.">Robust peptidoglycan growth by dynamic and variable multi-protein complexes.</a> Current Opinion in Microbiology. 36, 55-61 (2017).</li><li>Raetz, C. 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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fortifying+the+barrier:+the+impact+of+lipid+A+remodelling+on+bacterial+pathogenesis.">Fortifying the barrier: the impact of lipid A remodelling on bacterial pathogenesis.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 11, 467-481 (2013).</li><li>Simpson, B. W., Trent, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pushing+the+envelope:+LPS+modifications+and+their+consequences.">Pushing the envelope: LPS modifications and their consequences.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 17, 403-416 (2019).</li><li>Ebbensgaard, A., Mordhorst, H., Aarestrup, F. M., Hansen, E. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Role+of+Outer+Membrane+Proteins+and+Lipopolysaccharides+for+the+Sensitivity+of+Escherichia+coli+to+Antimicrobial+Peptides.">The Role of Outer Membrane Proteins and Lipopolysaccharides for the Sensitivity of Escherichia coli to Antimicrobial Peptides.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 9, 2153 (2018).</li><li>Liu, D., Reeves, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Escherichia+coli+K12+regains+its+O+antigen.">Escherichia coli K12 regains its O antigen.</a> Microbiology. 140 (1), 49-57 (1994).</li><li>Kalynych, S., Morona, R., Cygler, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progress+in+understanding+the+assembly+process+of+bacterial+O-antigen.">Progress in understanding the assembly process of bacterial O-antigen.</a> FEMS Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 38, 1048-1065 (2014).</li><li>Osborn, M. J., Gander, J. E., Parisi, E., Carson, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+assembly+of+the+outer+membrane+of+Salmonella+typhimurium.+Isolation+and+characterization+of+cytoplasmic+and+outer+membrane.">Mechanism of assembly of the outer membrane of Salmonella typhimurium. Isolation and characterization of cytoplasmic and outer membrane.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 247, 3962-3972 (1972).</li><li>Osborn, M. J., Munson, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separation+of+the+inner+(cytoplasmic)+and+outer+membranes+of+Gram-negative+bacteria.">Separation of the inner (cytoplasmic) and outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 31, 642-653 (1974).</li><li>Cian, M. B., Giordano, N. P., Masilamani, R., Minor, K. E., Dalebroux, Z. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salmonella+enterica+serovar+Typhimurium+use+PbgA/YejM+to+regulate+lipopolysaccharide+assembly+during+bacteremia.">Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium use PbgA/YejM to regulate lipopolysaccharide assembly during bacteremia.</a> Infection and Immunity. , (2019).</li><li>Masilamani, R., Cian, M. B., Dalebroux, Z. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salmonella+Tol-Pal+Reduces+Outer+Membrane+Glycerophospholipid+Levels+for+Envelope+Homeostasis+and+Survival+during+Bacteremia.">Salmonella Tol-Pal Reduces Outer Membrane Glycerophospholipid Levels for Envelope Homeostasis and Survival during Bacteremia.</a> Infection and Immunity. 86, (2018).</li><li>Nikaido, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outer+Membrane+of+Salmonella-Typhimurium+Transmembrane+Diffusion+of+Some+Hydrophobic+Substances.">Outer Membrane of Salmonella-Typhimurium Transmembrane Diffusion of Some Hydrophobic Substances.</a> Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 433, 118-132 (1976).</li><li>Dalebroux, Z. D., Matamouros, S., Whittington, D., Bishop, R. E., Miller, S. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+analysis+of+the+outer+membrane+and+other+layers+of+the+cell+envelope+of+Acinetobacter+sp.">Chemical analysis of the outer membrane and other layers of the cell envelope of Acinetobacter sp.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 116, 410-417 (1973).</li><li>Geisinger, E., Huo, W., Hernandez-Bird, J., Isberg, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acinetobacter+baumannii:+Envelope+Determinants+That+Control+Drug+Resistance,+Virulence,+and+Surface+Variability.">Acinetobacter baumannii: Envelope Determinants That Control Drug Resistance, Virulence, and Surface Variability.</a> Annual Review of Microbiology. 73, 481-506 (2019).</li><li>Kamischke, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Acinetobacter+baumannii+Mla+system+and+glycerophospholipid+transport+to+the+outer+membrane.">The Acinetobacter baumannii Mla system and glycerophospholipid transport to the outer membrane.</a> Elife. 8, (2019).</li></ol>

This method will continue to aid researchers in understanding the role of the cell envelope in bacterial physiology and pathogenesis. Following the sequential ultracentrifugation steps a purified total, inner, and OM fraction can be obtained. These membranes can be assayed in isolation to test hypotheses related to membrane protein localization and function, transport and trafficking across the periplasm, and the composition of the individual bilayers under various environmental conditions. Biological studies exploring t...

Gram-negative bacteria produce two membranes that are separated by a periplasmic space and a peptidoglycan cell wall1. The inner membrane (IM) encases the cytosol and is a symmetric bilayer of phospholipids. Peptidoglycan protects against turgor pressure and provides the bacterium with a cell shape, and is attached to the outer membrane (OM) by lipoproteins2,3. The OM surrounds the periplasm and is predominantly asymmetric. The inner leaflet consists of phospholipids and the outer leaflet consists of glycolipids known as lipooligosaccharides (LOS) or lipopolysaccharides (LPS)4,5. The lipid asymmetry and the biochemistry of the LOS/LPS molecules in the outer leaflet confer barrier properties to the cell surface that protect the bacterium against hazards in its environment6,7.
LPS molecules are comprised of three constituents: the lipid A disaccharolipid, the core oligosaccharide, and the O-polysaccharide or O-antigen. Lipid A is a multiply acylated disaccharolipid. Core-oligosaccharides consist of 10&#8211;15 sugars known as rough LPS or R-LPS. The core is subdivided into the inner region, composed of 2-keto-3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (kdo) and one or more heptose residues, and an outer region that consists generally of hexoses (glucose or galactose) and heptoses, or acetamido sugars5. The outer core region is more variable in its components and structure than the inner core. In Salmonella spp., only one core structure has been described; however, in Escherichia coli there are five different core structures (designated K-12, R1, R2, R3, and R4)8. E. coli K-12 DH5&#945;, which we use in this procedure carries a mutation that results in production R-LPS9. The R-LPS molecules lack the O-antigen moiety and have a similar molecular weight to LOS molecules.
The addition of O-antigen to R-LPS turns this molecule into smooth LPS, or S-LPS. The O-antigens are built from short 3-4 carbohydrate subunits and consist of multiple modalities with varying chain lengths10. Some LPS-producing bacteria, like Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), display a trimodal distribution of LPS molecules on their surface10,11. Very-long chain O-antigens can contain over one hundred subunits and weigh over one hundred kilodaltons. The O-antigens provide surface properties to the bacterium that are necessary to resist antibiotics, evade predation by bacteriophages, and cause disease.
Species of Campylobacter, Bordetella, Acinetobacter, Haemophilus, Neisseria and others generate LOS molecules instead of LPS molecules on their surface12. LOS molecules consist of lipid A and core oligosaccharides but lack the O-antigen. These types of Gram-negative bacteria modify their core oligosaccharides with additional sugars and combinations of sugars to alter surface properties12. Both LOS and LPS-producing microbes derivatize the phosphates on lipid A and core molecules with cationic moieties7. These additions include phosphoethanolamine, galactosamine and aminoarabinose substitutions, which function by neutralizing anionic surface charge and thereby protecting against cationic antimicrobial peptides. Gram-negative bacteria also modify the core oligosaccharide structure with variable non-stoichiometric substitutions of sugars, or extra kdo molecules, and alter the number of acyl chains on lipid-A disaccharolipids7.
The ability to isolate the IM from the OM of Gram-negative bacteria has been instrumental for understanding the role of the cell envelope in antimicrobial resistance and disease pathogenesis11,12. Derivations of this approach have been used to deduce mechanisms of assembly, maintenance, and remodeling of the protein, phospholipid, and glycolipid constituents for the OM.
Our lab routinely performs bacterial lipidomic analyses to study protein-mediated lipid regulation and lipid function in a variety of Gram-negative species. The volumes used in the protocol reflect the routine use of this procedure to analyze non-radiolabeled phospholipids by thin layer chromatography and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry13,14.
The protocol begins by exposing a chilled suspension of Gram-negative bacteria to a high osmolar solution of sucrose and adding lysozyme to dissociate the OM from the underlying peptidoglycan layer (Figure 1)12. EDTA is then added to facilitate penetration of the lysozyme, since divalent cation sequestration disrupts the lateral electrostatic bridging interactions between adjacent LOS/LPS molecules15. The original protocol from which ours has been adapted required the formation of spheroplasts, a Gram-negative bacterial cell form that consist of a plasma membrane and cytosol, but lacks the peptidoglycan layer and an OM. It is possible that spheroplasts are produced by the adapted method; however, the technique does not rely or intend on their formation for success. Instead, the lysozyme-EDTA treated bacteria are rapidly harvested by centrifugation and re-suspended in a sucrose solution of lesser concentration before pressurized lysis. The OMs that might have been released by forming spheroplasts should in theory be harvestable from the supernatants of the treated cells, but this approach is not detailed herein. Ultimately, the treated cells are subjected to conventional homogenization and lysis, which enhances the efficiency and reproducibility of the membrane separation procedure16.
After lysis, the total membranes are collected by ultracentrifugation and applied to a discontinuous sucrose density gradient to fractionate the IMs and OMs. The classical approach uses a more continuous gradient that consists of at least five different sucrose solutions11,12. The discontinuous gradient in our protocol consists of three sucrose solutions and partitions the bilayers into two distinct fractions17. The LOS and LPS molecules within the OMs of Gram-negative bacteria drive the envelope to partition into an upper brown low-density IM fraction and a lower white high-density OM fraction (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Acinetobacter baumannii are important multidrug resistant human pathogens that produce LOS molecules in their OM and erect a cell envelope that is difficult to separate18,19. Recent work suggests that a derivation of the protocol we present here can be used to partition the bilayers of these organisms20. Therefore, we tested our protocol on A. baumannii 17978. Initially, the procedure was inadequate. However, we modified the sucrose concentration of the middle density solution and greatly improved separation (Figure 2). An NADH dehydrogenase assay and a LOS/LPS extraction and detection procedure was used to confirm separation for A. baumannii, wild-type S. Typhimurium and two O-antigen deficient enterobacterial genotypes; namely, galE-mutant S. Typhimurium and a laboratory strain, E. coli DH5&#945; (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
The intent of this work is to supply a streamlined approach for reproducibly isolating the membranes of Gram-negative bacteria. The protocol can be used to study many types of membrane-associated molecules for these microbes.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 L Centrifuge bottles, PC/PPCO, super speed, with sealing cap, Nalgene</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>525-0466</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 L Pyrex Media Storage Bottle with High Temperature Cap</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10416-312</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2000 mL Erlenmeyer Flask, Narrow Mouth</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10545-844</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-20% mini PROTEAN Precast Protein Gels, 12 well</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>4561095</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>4x Laemmli Sample Buffer 10 mL</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>1610747</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL sterile polypropylene centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89049-174</td>
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			<td>7 mL Dounce Tissue Homogenizer with Two Glass Pestles</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>71000-518</td>
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			<td>70 mL polycarbonate bottle assembly</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Life Sciences</td>
			<td>355622</td>
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			<td>A10752</td>
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			<td>B10P Benchtop pH Meter with pH Probe</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89231-664</td>
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			<td>Barnstead GenPure xCAD Plus UV/UF - TOC (bench version)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50136146</td>
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			<td>Benzonase Nuclease</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>70746-3</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>EDTA disodium salt dihydrate 99.0-101.0%, crystals, ultrapure Bioreagent Molecular biology grade, J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>4040-01</td>
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			<td>EmulsiFlex-C3</td>
			<td>Avestin, Inc.</td>
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			<td>Fiberlite F13-14 x 50cy Fixed Angle Rotor</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>75006526</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Hydrochloric acid 6.0 N</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH7204</td>
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			<td>IBI Scientific Orbital Platform Shaker</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>15-453-211</td>
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			<td>LB Broth Miller</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>214906</td>
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			<td>Lysozyme, Egg White, Ultra Pure Grade</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>VWRV0063</td>
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			<td>Magnesium chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2670</td>
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			<td>NADH</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>10107735001</td>
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			<td>Optima XPN-80 - IVD</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Life Sciences</td>
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			<td>NC1624582</td>
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			<td>Phenol Solution, Equilibrated with 10 mM Tris HCl, pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA, BioReagent, for molecular biology</td>
			<td>Sigma - Millipore</td>
			<td>P4557</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Pierce Coomassie Plus (Bradford) Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>23238</td>
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			<td>Pro-Q emerald 300 Lipopolysaccharide Gel Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
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			<td>Proteacease -50, EDTA free</td>
			<td>G Biosciences</td>
			<td>786-334</td>
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			<td>Proteinase K, Molecular Biology Grade</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>P8107S</td>
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			<td>Sodium hydroxide &#8805;99.99%</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
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			<td>Sorval RC 6 Plus Centrifuge</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>36-101-0816</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>SX1075-3</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>SW 41 Ti Swinging-Bucket Rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Life Sciences</td>
			<td>331362</td>
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			<td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (TRIS, Trometamol) &#8805;99.9% (dried basis), ultrapure Bioreagent Molecular biology grade, J.T. Baker</td>
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			<td>JT4109-6</td>
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			<td>Type 45 Ti Fixed-Angle Titanium Rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Life Sciences</td>
			<td>339160</td>
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			<td>Ultra-Clear Tube ,14 x 89mm</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Life Sciences</td>
			<td>344059</td>
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			<td>Vortex-Genie 2</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>102091-234</td>
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	</tbody>
</table>

separation of the cell envelope for gram-negative bacteria into inner and outer membrane fractions with technical adjustments for acinetobacter baumannii

This method works by partitioning the envelope of Gram-negative bacteria into total, inner, and outer membrane (OM) fractions and concludes with assays to assess the purity of the bilayers. The OM has an increased overall density compared to the inner membrane, largely due to the presence of lipooligosaccharides (LOS) and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) within the outer leaflet. LOS and LPS molecules are amphipathic glycolipids that have a similar structure, which consists of a lipid-A disaccharolipid and core-oligosaccharide substituent. However, only LPS molecules are decorated with a third subunit known as the O-polysaccharide, or O-antigen. The type and amount of glycolipids present will impact an organism&#8217;s OM density. Therefore, we tested whether the membranes of bacteria with varied glycolipid content could be similarly isolated using our technique. For the LPS-producing organisms, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Escherichia coli, the membranes were easily isolated and the LPS O-antigen moiety did not impact bilayer partitioning. Acinetobacter baumannii produces LOS molecules, which have a similar mass to O-antigen deficient LPS molecules; however, the membranes of these microbes could not initially be separated. We reasoned that the OM of A. baumannii was less dense than that of Enterobacteriaceae, so the sucrose gradient was adjusted and the membranes were isolated. The technique can therefore be adapted and modified for use with other organisms.

This technique provides an effective means to isolate the IMs and OMs for Gram-negative bacteria. An outline of the entire procedure is illustrated (Figure 1). In general, the normalization of cultures to an OD600 of 0.6-0.8 in 1 L of media, or harvesting between 6.0 and 8.0 x 1011 bacterial cells will ensure that the appropriate amount of membrane material is collected for subsequent separation.
Upon lysing the bacteria and ultracentrifuging...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii at J

Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii

Gram-negative bacteria produce two spatially segregated membranes. The outer membrane is partitioned from the inner membrane by a periplasm and a peptidoglycan layer. The ability to isolate the dual bilayers of these microbes has been critical for understanding their physiology and pathogenesis.

Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii

This method works by partitioning the envelope of Gram-negative bacteria into total, inner, and outer membrane (OM) fractions and concludes with assays to ...

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Tractable Mammalian Cell Infections with Protozoan-primed Bacteria

Many intracellular bacterial pathogens use freshwater protozoans as a natural reservoir for proliferation in the environment. Legionella pneumophila, the ...

Fluorescence Microscopy Methods for Determining the Viability of Bacteria in Association with Mammalian Cells

Central to the field of bacterial pathogenesis is the ability to define if and how microbes survive after exposure to eukaryotic cells. Current protocols ...

Rapid Identification of Gram Negative Bacteria from Blood Culture Broth Using MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry

An important role of the clinical microbiology laboratory is to provide rapid identification of bacteria causing bloodstream infection. Traditional ...

In Vivo Investigation of Antimicrobial Blue Light Therapy for Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Burn Infections Using Bioluminescence Imaging

In Vivo Investigation of Antimicrobial Blue Light Therapy for Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Burn Infections Using Bioluminescence Imaging

Burn infections continue to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality. The increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria has led to ...

Legionella pneumophila Outer Membrane Vesicles: Isolation and Analysis of Their Pro-inflammatory Potential on Macrophages

Legionella pneumophila Outer Membrane Vesicles: Isolation and Analysis of Their Pro-inflammatory Potential on Macrophages

Bacteria are able to secrete a variety of molecules via various secretory systems. Besides the secretion of molecules into the extracellular space or ...

Application of Consistent Massage-Like Perturbations on Mouse Calves and Monitoring the Resulting Intramuscular Pressure Changes

Massage is generally recognized to be beneficial for relieving pain and inflammation. Although previous studies have reported anti-inflammatory effects of ...

Separation of Rat Epidermis and Dermis with Thermolysin to Detect Site-Specific Inflammatory mRNA and Protein

Easy-to-use and inexpensive techniques are needed to determine the site-specific production of inflammatory mediators and neurotrophins during skin ...

A Neonatal Imaging Model of Gram-Negative Bacterial Sepsis

Neonates are at an increased risk of bacterial sepsis due to the unique immune profile they display in the first months of life. We have established a ...

A Non-Coding Small RNA MicC Contributes to Virulence in Outer Membrane Proteins in Salmonella Enteritidis

A Non-Coding Small RNA MicC Contributes to Virulence in Outer Membrane Proteins in Salmonella Enteritidis

A non-coding small RNA (sRNA) is a new factor to regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. A kind of sRNA MicC, known in Escherichia ...