I would like to thank Meredith Cenzer for purchasing all flight mill materials and providing continuous feedback from the construction to the write-up of the project. I also thank Ana Silberg for her contributions to standardize_troughs.py. Finally, I thank the Media Arts, Data, and Design Center (MADD) at the University of Chicago for permission to use its communal makerspace equipment, technology, and supplies free of charge.

<ol>
	<li>Krogh, A., Weis-Fogh, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Roundabout+for+studying+sustained+flight+of+locusts.">Roundabout for studying sustained flight of locusts.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 29, 211-219 (1952).</li><li>Hocking, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+intrinsic+range+and+speed+of+flight+of+insects.">The intrinsic range and speed of flight of insects.</a> Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London. 104 (8), 223 (1953).</li><li>Chambers, D. L., O'Connell, T. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+flight+mill+for+studies+with+the+mexican+fruit+fly.">A flight mill for studies with the mexican fruit fly.</a> Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 62 (4), 917-920 (1969).</li><li>Chambers, D. L., Sharp, J. L., Ashley, T. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tethered+insect+flight:+A+system+for+automated+data+processing+of+behavioral+events.">Tethered insect flight: A system for automated data processing of behavioral events.</a> Behavior Research Methods &amp; Instrumentation. 8 (4), 352-356 (1976).</li><li>Naranjo, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+insect+flight+behavior+in+the+laboratory:+a+primer+on+flight+mill+methodology+and+what+can+be+learned.">Assessing insect flight behavior in the laboratory: a primer on flight mill methodology and what can be learned.</a> Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 112 (3), 18 (2019).</li><li>Ribak, G., Barkan, S., Soroker, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+aerodynamics+of+flight+in+an+insect+flight-mill.">The aerodynamics of flight in an insect flight-mill.</a> PLoS ONE. 12 (11), 0186441 (2017).</li><li>Pollack, G. S., Martins, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+and+hearing:+Ultrasound+sensitivity+differs+between+flight-capable+and+flight-incapable+morphs+of+a+wing-dimorphic+cricket+species.">Flight and hearing: Ultrasound sensitivity differs between flight-capable and flight-incapable morphs of a wing-dimorphic cricket species.</a> The Journal of Experimental Biology. 210, 3160-3164 (2007).</li><li>Koehler, C., Liang, Z., Gaston, Z., Wan, H., Dong, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+reconstruction+and+analysis+of+wing+deformation+in+free-flying+dragonflies.">3D reconstruction and analysis of wing deformation in free-flying dragonflies.</a> The Journal of Experimental Biology. 215, 3018-3027 (2012).</li><li>Behm, J. E., Waite, B. R., Hsieh, S. T., Helmus, M. 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M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+in+the+making:+A+comparative+case+study+of+three+makerspaces.">Learning in the making: A comparative case study of three makerspaces.</a> Harvard Educational Review. 84, 505-531 (2014).</li><li>Khalifa, S., Brahimi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Makerspace:+A+novel+approach+to+creative+learning.">Makerspace: A novel approach to creative learning.</a> Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Xplore. 1, 43-48 (2017).</li><li>Smay, D., Walker, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Makerspaces:+A+creative+approach+to+education.">Makerspaces: A creative approach to education.</a> Teacher Librarian. 42, 39-43 (2015).</li><li>Attisano, A., Murphy, J. T., Vickers, A., Moore, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+flight+mill+for+the+study+of+tethered+flight+in+insects.">A simple flight mill for the study of tethered flight in insects.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 106, e53377 (2015).</li><li>Reynolds, D. R., Riley, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remote-sensing,+telemetric+and+computer-based+technologies+for+investigating+insect+movement:+A+of+existing+and+potential+techniques.">Remote-sensing, telemetric and computer-based technologies for investigating insect movement: A of existing and potential techniques.</a> Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 35 (2-3), 271-307 (2002).</li><li>Davis, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Geographic+patterns+in+the+flight+ability+of+a+monophagous+beetle.">Geographic patterns in the flight ability of a monophagous beetle.</a> Oecologia. 69, 407-412 (1986).</li><li>Taylor, R. A. J., Bauer, L. S., Poland, T. M., Windell, K. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+performance+of+Agrilus+planipennis+(Cleoptera:+Buprestidae)+on+a+flight+mill+and+in+free+flight.">Flight performance of Agrilus planipennis (Cleoptera: Buprestidae) on a flight mill and in free flight.</a> Journal of Insect Behavior. 23, 128-148 (2010).</li><li>Irvin, N. A., Hoddle, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+the+flight+capabilities+of+fed+and+starved+Allograpata+obliqua+(Diptera:+Syrphidae),+a+natural+enemy+of+Asian+citrus+psyllid,+with+computerized+flight+mills.">Assessing the flight capabilities of fed and starved Allograpata obliqua (Diptera: Syrphidae), a natural enemy of Asian citrus psyllid, with computerized flight mills.</a> Florida Entomologist. 103 (1), 139-140 (2020).</li><li>Minter, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+tethered+flight+technique+as+a+tool+for+studying+life-history+strategies+associated+with+migration+in+insects.">The tethered flight technique as a tool for studying life-history strategies associated with migration in insects.</a> Ecological Entomology. 43 (4), 397-411 (2018).</li><li>Dingle, H., Blakley, N. R., Miller, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variation+in+body+size+and+flight+performance+in+milkweed+bugs+(Oncopeltus).">Variation in body size and flight performance in milkweed bugs (Oncopeltus).</a> Evolution. 34 (2), 371-385 (1980).</li><li>Martini, X., Hoyte, A., Stelinski, L. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Abdominal+color+of+the+Asian+citrus+psyllid+(Hempitera:+Liviidae)+is+associated+with+flight+capabilities.">Abdominal color of the Asian citrus psyllid (Hempitera: Liviidae) is associated with flight capabilities.</a> Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 107 (4), 842-847 (2014).</li><li>Chen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+capacity+of+Bactrocera+dorsalis+(Diptera:+Tephritidae)+adult+females+based+on+flight+mill+studies+and+flight+muscle+ultrastructure.">Flight capacity of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) adult females based on flight mill studies and flight muscle ultrastructure.</a> Journal of Insect Science. 15 (1), 141 (2015).</li><li>Guo, J., Li, X., Shen, X., Wang, M., Wu, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+performance+of+Mamestra+brassicae+Noctuidae)+under+different+biotic+and+abiotic+conditions.">Flight performance of Mamestra brassicae Noctuidae) under different biotic and abiotic conditions.</a> Journal of Insect Science. 20 (1), 1-9 (2020).</li><li>Johnson, M. W., Toscano, N. C., Jones, V. P., Bailey, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modified+ultrasonic+actograph+for+monitoring+activity+of+lepidopterous+larvae.">Modified ultrasonic actograph for monitoring activity of lepidopterous larvae.</a> Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 27, 141-146 (1986).</li><li>Cheng, X., Sun, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wing-kinematics+measurement+and+aerodynamics+in+a+small+insect+in+hovering+flight.">Wing-kinematics measurement and aerodynamics in a small insect in hovering flight.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 25706 (2016).</li><li>Holland, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dispersal+kernel+determines+symmetry+of+spread+and+geographical+range+for+an+insect.">Dispersal kernel determines symmetry of spread and geographical range for an insect.</a> International Journal of Ecology. 2009, 4 (2009).</li><li>Frouz, J., Kindlmann, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Source-sink+colonization+as+a+possible+strategry+of+insects+living+in+temporary+habitats.">Source-sink colonization as a possible strategry of insects living in temporary habitats.</a> PLoS ONE. 10 (6), 1-10 (2015).</li><li>Ventola, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Medical+applications+for+3D+printing:+Current+and+projected+uses.">Medical applications for 3D printing: Current and projected uses.</a> Pharmacy &amp; Therapeutics. 39 (10), 704-711 (2014).</li><li>Mart&#237;-Campoy, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+of+a+computerized+flight+mill+device+to+measure+the+flight+potential+of+different+insects.">Design of a computerized flight mill device to measure the flight potential of different insects.</a> Sensors (Basel). 16 (4), 1-21 (2016).</li><li>Dubois, G. F., Vernon, P., Brustel, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+flight+mill+for+large+beetles+such+as+Osmoderma+eremita+(Cleoptera:+Cetoniidae).">A flight mill for large beetles such as Osmoderma eremita (Cleoptera: Cetoniidae).</a> Saproxylic Beetles. Their Role and Diversity in European Woodland and Tree Habitats. 14, 219-224 (2009).</li><li>Webster, M. N., Doner, J. P., Wikstrom, V., Lugt, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Grease+degradation+in+R0F+bearing+tests.">Grease degradation in R0F bearing tests.</a> Tribology Transactions. 50 (2), 187-197 (2007).</li><li>Jones, H. B. C., Lim, K. S., Bell, J. R., Hill, J. K., Chapman, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+interspecific+variation+in+dispersal+ability+of+noctuid+moths+using+an+advanced+tethered+flight+technique.">Quantifying interspecific variation in dispersal ability of noctuid moths using an advanced tethered flight technique.</a> Ecology and Evolution. 6 (1), 181-190 (2016).</li><li>Walker, M., Humphries, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+Printing:+applications+in+evolution+and+ecology.">3D Printing: applications in evolution and ecology.</a> Ecology and Evolution. 9 (7), 4289-4301 (2019).</li><li>Shahrubudin, N., Lee, T. C., Ramlan, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+overview+of+3D+printing+technology:+technological,+materials,+and+applications.">An overview of 3D printing technology: technological, materials, and applications.</a> Science Direct. 35, 1286-1296 (2019).</li><li>Taylor, R. A. J., Nault, L. R., Styer, W. E., Cheng, Z. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer-monitored,+16-channel+flight+mill+for+recording+the+flight+of+leafhoppers+(Homoptera:+Auchenorrhyncha).">Computer-monitored, 16-channel flight mill for recording the flight of leafhoppers (Homoptera: Auchenorrhyncha).</a> Journal of the Entomological Society of America. 85 (5), 627-632 (1992).</li><li>Nachtigall, W., Hanauer-Thieser, U., M&#246;rz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+of+the+honey+bee+VII:+Metabolic+power+versus+flight+speed+relation.">Flight of the honey bee VII: Metabolic power versus flight speed relation.</a> Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 165, 484-489 (1995).</li><li>Hardie, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+behavior+in+migrating+insects.">Flight behavior in migrating insects.</a> Journal of Agricultural Entomology. 10 (4), 239-245 (1993).</li><li>Blackmer, J. 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The author has nothing to disclose.

The simple, modern flight mill provides a range of advantages for researchers interested in studying tethered insect flight&#160;by delivering a reliable and automated design that tests multiple insects efficiently and cost-effectively13,31,35. Likewise, there is a strong incentive for researchers to adopt&#160;fast-emerging technologies and techniques from industry and other scientific fields as a means to build experimental to...

Given how intractable the dispersal of insects is in the field, the flight mill has become a common laboratory tool to address an important ecological phenomenon - how insects move. As a consequence, since the pioneers of the flight mill1,2,3,4 ushered in six decades of flight mill design and construction, there have been noticeable design shifts as technologies improved and became more integrated into scientific communities. Over time, automated data-collecting software replaced chart recorders, and flight mill arms transitioned from glass rods to carbon rods and steel tubing5. In the last decade alone, magnetic bearings replaced Teflon or glass bearings as optimally frictionless, and pairs between flight mill machinery and versatile technology have been proliferating as audio, visual, and layer fabrication technology become increasingly integrated into researchers&#39; workflows. These pairings have included high-speed video cameras to measure wing aerodynamics6, digital-to-analog boards to mimic sensory cues for studying auditory flight responses7, and 3D printing to make a calibration rig to track wing deformation during flight8. With the recent rise of emerging technologies at makerspaces, particularly at institutions with digital media centers run by knowledgeable staff9, there are greater possibilities to enhance the flight mill to test a larger range of insects and to transport the device to the field. There is also a high potential for researchers to cross disciplinary boundaries and accelerate technical learning through production-based work9,10,11,12. The flight mill presented here (adapted from Attisano and colleagues13) takes advantage of emerging technologies found in makerspaces to not only 1) create flight mill components whose scales and dimensions are fine-tuned to the project at hand but also 2) offer researchers an accessible protocol in laser cutting and 3D printing without demanding a high-budget or any specialized knowledge in computer-aided design (CAD).
The benefits of coupling new technologies and methods with the flight mill are substantial, but flight mills are also valuable stand-alone machines. Flight mills measure insect flight performance and are used to determine how flight speed, distance, or periodicity relates to environmental or ecological factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, season, host plant, body mass, morphological traits, age, and reproductive activity. Distinct from alternative methods like actographs, treadmills, and the video recording of flight movement in wind tunnels and indoor arenas14, the flight mill is notable for its ability to collect various flight performance statistics under laboratory conditions. This helps ecologists address important questions on flight dispersal, and it helps them progress in their discipline - whether that be integrated pest management15,16,17, population dynamics, genetics, biogeography, life-history strategies18, or phenotypic plasticity19,20,21,22. On the other hand, devices like high-speed cameras and actographs can require a strict, complicated, and expensive setup, but they can also lead to more fine-tuned movement parameters, such as wing-beat frequencies and insect photophase activity23,24. Thus, the flight mill presented here serves as a flexible, affordable, and customizable option for researchers to investigate flight behavior.
Likewise, the incentive to integrate emerging technologies into ecologists&#39; workflow continues to rise as questions and approaches to studying dispersal become more creative and complex. As locations that promote innovation, makerspaces draw in multiple levels of expertise and offer a low learning curve for users of any age to acquire new technical skills10,12. The iterative and collaborative nature of prototyping scientific devices in the makerspace and through online open sources can accelerate the application of theory11 and facilitate product development in the ecological sciences. Furthermore, increasing the reproducibility of scientific tools will encourage wider data collection and open science. This can help researchers standardize equipment or methods for measuring dispersal. Standardizing tools could further allow ecologists to unify dispersal data across populations in order to test metapopulation models that develop from dispersal kernels25 or source-sink colonization dynamics26. Much like how the medical community is adopting 3D printing for patient care and anatomy education27, ecologists can use&#160;laser cutters and 3D printers to redesign ecological tools and education and, within the scope of this study, can design additional flight mill components, such as landing platforms or a flight mill arm that can move vertically. In turn, the customization, cost-effectiveness, and increased productivity offered by makerspace technology can help start up dispersal projects with a relatively low barrier for researchers who intend to develop their own tools and devices.
To construct this flight mill, there are also mechanical and instrumental limitations that can be considered by the maker. Magnets and 3D printed enhancements allow the flight mill to be essentially glueless, except for the construction of the cross brackets, and to be accommodable to insects of different sizes. However, as the mass and the strength of insects increase, insects may be more likely to dismount themselves while tethered. Strong magnets can be used at the cost of increased torsional drag, or ball bearings can replace magnetic bearings as a robust solution for flight testing insects that weigh several grams28,29. Nevertheless, ball bearings can also present some problems, mainly that running prolonged experiments with high speeds and high temperatures can degrade the lubrication of ball bearings, which increases friction30. Thus, users will have to discern which flight mill mechanics would best suit their insect(s) of study and experimental design.
Similarly, there are several ways to instrument a flight mill that is beyond this paper&#39;s considerations. The flight mill presented here uses IR sensors to detect revolutions, WinDAQ software to record revolutions, and programming scripts to process the raw data. Although it is easy-to-use, the WinDAQ software has a limited array of tools available.&#160;Users cannot attach comments to their corresponding channel, and they cannot be alerted if any component of the circuitry fails. These cases are solved by detecting and correcting them through code but only after data collection. Alternatively, users can adopt more than one software that offers customizable data collection features28 or sensors that take direct speed and distance statistics, like bike milometers29. However, these alternatives can bypass valuable raw data or diffuse functionality across too many software applications, which can make data processing inefficient. Ultimately, rather than refashioning flight mill instrumentation, this protocol offers robust programming solutions to present-day software limitations.
In this paper, a design for an enhanced simple flight mill is described to aid researchers in their dispersal studies and to encourage the incorporation of emerging technologies in the field of behavioral ecology. This flight mill fits within the constraints of an incubator, holds up to eight insects simultaneously, and automates data collection and processing. Notably, its 3D printed enhancements allow the user to adjust the mill arm and IR sensor heights to test insects of various sizes and to disassemble the device for quick storage or transportation. Thanks to institutional access to a communal makerspace, all enhancements were free, and no additional costs were accrued compared to the simple, modern flight mill. All software needed are free, the electronic circuitry is simple, and all scripts can be modified to follow the specific needs of the experimental design. Moreover, coded diagnostics allow the user to check the integrity and precision of their recordings. Lastly, this protocol minimizes the stress sustained by an insect by magnetically painting and tethering&#160;insects to the mill arm. With the assembly of the simple flight mill being already accessible, affordable, and flexible, the use of makerspace technologies to enhance the simple flight mill can grant researchers the space to overcome their own specific flight study needs and can inspire creative flight mill designs beyond this paper&#39;s considerations.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr >
			<td >180&#160;&#937; Resistor</td>
			<td >E-Projects</td>
			<td >10EP514180R</td>
			<td >Carbon film; stiff 24 gauge lead.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >19 Gauge Non-Magnetic Hypodermic Steel Tubing</td>
			<td>MicroGroup</td>
			<td>304H19RW&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >2.2 k&#937; Resistor</td>
			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td >2782</td>
			<td>Carbon film; stiff 24 gauge lead.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >3D Printer</td>
			<td>FlashForge</td>
			<td >700355100638</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >3D Printer Filament</td>
			<td>FlashForge</td>
			<td >700355100638</td>
			<td>Diameter 1.75 mm; 1kg/roll.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >3D Printing Slicing Software</td>
			<td>FlashPrint</td>
			<td>4.4.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Acrylic Plastic Sheets</td>
			<td>Blick Art Supplies</td>
			<td>28945-1006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td>Target</td>
			<td>253-01-0860</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Breadboard Power Supply</td>
			<td>HandsOn Tech</td>
			<td>MDU1025</td>
			<td>Can take 6.5V to 12V input and can produce 3.3V and 5V.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >DI-1100 USB Data Logger</td>
			<td>DATAQ Instruments</td>
			<td>DI-1100</td>
			<td>Has 4 differential armored analog inputs.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Electrical Wires</td>
			<td>Striveday</td>
			<td>B077HWS5XV</td>
			<td>24 gauge solid wire.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Entomological Pins</td>
			<td>BioQuip</td>
			<td>1208S2</td>
			<td>Size 2; diameter 0.45 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Filtered 20 uL Pipette Tip</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>21-402-550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hot Glue Gun with Hot Glue</td>
			<td>Joann Fabrics</td>
			<td >17366956</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >IR Sensor</td>
			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td >2167</td>
			<td>This is the&#160;3 mm IR&#160;version; works up to 25 cm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Large Clear Vinyl Tubing</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>T10007008</td>
			<td>Inner diameter 3/8 in; outer diameter 1/2 in; length 20 ft.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Large Magnets</td>
			<td>Bunting</td>
			<td>EP654</td>
			<td>Low-friction N42 neodymium; diameter 0.394 in; length 0.157 in; holding force 4.9 lb.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Laser Cutter&#160;</td>
			<td>Universal Laser Systems&#160;</td>
			<td>PLS6.75</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >M5 Hex Nut</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td >204274112</td>
			<td>Thread pitch 0.8 mm; screw length 20 mm; diameter 5 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >M5 Long Iron Screws</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td >204283784</td>
			<td>Philips pan head; thread pitch 0.8 mm; screw length 20 mm; diameter 5 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >M5 Short Iron Screws</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td >203540129</td>
			<td>Philips pan head; thread pitch 0.8 mm; screw length 10 mm; diameter 5 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Neoprene Rubber Sheet</td>
			<td>Grainger</td>
			<td>60DC16</td>
			<td>Length 12 in; width 12 in; depth 1/8in.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Online 3D Modeling Software</td>
			<td>Autodesk</td>
			<td>2019_10_14</td>
			<td>Tinkercad.com offers a free account.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Power Adaptor</td>
			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td >63</td>
			<td>9 VDC 1000mA regulated switching; input voltage DC 3.3V 5V.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Small Clear Vinyl Tubing</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>T10007005</td>
			<td>Inner diameter 1/4 in; outer diameter 3/8 in; 20 ft long.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Small Magnets</td>
			<td>Bunting</td>
			<td>N42P120060</td>
			<td>Low-friction N42 neodymium; diameter 0.120 in; length 0.060 in; holding force 0.5 lb.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Solderless MB-102 Breadboard&#160;</td>
			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td >239</td>
			<td>830 tie points; length 17 cm; width 5.5 cm; input voltage, DC 3.3 V 5 V.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Sophisticated Finishes Iron Metallic Surfacer</td>
			<td>Blick Art Supplies</td>
			<td>27105-2584</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Wire Cutters</td>
			<td>Target</td>
			<td>&#160;84-031W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

building an enhanced flight mill for the study of tethered insect flight

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol demonstrates how to take advantage of the technology found in makerspaces in order to build a more versatile flight mill for a relatively low cost. Given that this study extracted its&#160;prototype from flight mills built in the last decade, this protocol focuses more on outlining divergences made from the simple, modern flight mill. Previous studies have already shown how advantageous flight mills are to measuring flight parameters such as speed, distance, or periodicity. Such mills have allowed researchers to associate these parameters with morphological, physiological, or genetic factors. In addition to these advantages, this study discusses the benefits of using the technology in makerspaces, like 3D printers and laser cutters, in order to build a more flexible, sturdy, and collapsible flight mill design. Most notably, the 3D printed components of this design allow the user to test insects of various sizes by making the heights of the mill arm and infrared (IR) sensors adjustable. The 3D prints also enable the user to easily disassemble the machine for quick storage or transportation to the field. Moreover, this study makes greater use of magnets and magnetic paint to tether insects with minimal stress. Lastly, this protocol details a versatile analysis of flight data through computer scripts that efficiently separate and analyze differentiable flight trials within a single recording. Although more labor-intensive, applying the tools available in makerspaces and on online 3D modeling programs facilitates multidisciplinary and process-orientated practices and helps researchers avoid costly, premade products with narrowly adjustable dimensions. By taking advantage of the flexibility and reproducibility of technology in makerspaces, this protocol promotes creative flight mill design and inspires open science.

Flight data were obtained experimentally during Winter 2020 using field collected J. haematoloma from Florida as the model insects (Bernat, A. V. and Cenzer, M. L. , 2020, unpublished data). Representative flight trials were conducted in the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Chicago, as shown below in Figure&#160;6, Figure 7, Figure 8, and&#160;Figure&#160;9. The flight m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Building an Enhanced Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Insect Flight at JoVE.com

Building an Enhanced Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Insect Flight

This protocol uses three-dimensional (3D) printers and laser cutters found in makerspaces in order to create a more flexible flight mill design. By using this technology, researchers can reduce costs, enhance design flexibility, and generate reproducible work when constructing their flight mills for tethered insect flight studies.

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol ...

building-an-enhanced-flight-mill-for-study-tethered-insect

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

2.8K Views.  University of Chicago. This protocol uses three-dimensional (3D) printers and laser cutters found in makerspaces in order to create a more flexible flight mill design. By using this technology, researchers can reduce costs, enhance design flexibility, and generate reproducible work when constructing their flight mills for tethered insect flight studies.

Video: Building an Enhanced Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Insect Flight

Fabrication of Uniform Nanoscale Cavities via Silicon Direct Wafer Bonding

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned and bonded silicon wafers. Unlike confinements in porous materials often used for these types of experiments3, bonded wafers provide predesigned uniform spaces for confinement. The geometry of each cell is well known, which removes a large source of ambiguity in the interpretation of data.
Exceptionally flat, 5 cm diameter, 375 &#181;m thick Si wafers with about 1 &#181;m variation over the entire wafer can be obtained commercially (from Semiconductor Processing Company, for example). Thermal oxide is grown on the wafers to define the confinement dimension in the z-direction. A pattern is then etched in the oxide using lithographic techniques so as to create a desired enclosure upon bonding. A hole is drilled in one of the wafers (the top) to allow for the introduction of the liquid to be measured. The wafers are cleaned2 in RCA solutions and then put in a microclean chamber where they are rinsed with deionized water4. The wafers are bonded at RT and then annealed at ~1,100 &#176;C. This forms a strong and permanent bond. This process can be used to make uniform enclosures for measuring thermal and hydrodynamic properties of confined liquids from the nanometer to the micrometer scale.

A method for permanently bonding two silicon wafers so as to realize a uniform enclosure is described. This includes wafer preparation, cleaning, RT bonding, and annealing processes. The resulting bonded wafers (cells) have uniformity of enclosure ~1%1,2. The resulting geometry allows for measurements of confined liquids and gasses.

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned ...

Fast Imaging Technique to Study Drop Impact Dynamics of Non-Newtonian Fluids

In the field of fluid mechanics, many dynamical processes not only occur over a very short time interval but also require high spatial resolution for detailed observation, scenarios that make it challenging to observe with conventional imaging systems. One of these is the drop impact of liquids, which usually happens within one tenth of millisecond. To tackle this challenge, a fast imaging technique is introduced that combines a high-speed camera (capable of up to one million frames per second) with a macro lens with long working distance to bring the spatial resolution of the image down to 10 &#181;m/pixel. The imaging technique enables precise measurement of relevant fluid dynamic quantities, such as the flow field, the spreading distance and the splashing speed, from analysis of the recorded video. To demonstrate the capabilities of this visualization system, the impact dynamics when droplets of non-Newtonian fluids impinge on a flat hard surface are characterized. Two situations are considered: for oxidized liquid metal droplets we focus on the spreading behavior, and for densely packed suspensions we determine the onset of splashing. More generally, the combination of high temporal and spatial imaging resolution introduced here offers advantages for studying fast dynamics across a wide range of microscale phenomena.

Drop impact of non-Newtonian fluids is a complex process since different physical parameters influence the dynamics over a very short time (less than one tenth of a millisecond). A fast imaging technique is introduced in order to characterize the impact behaviors of different non-Newtonian fluids.

In the field of fluid mechanics, many dynamical processes not only occur over a very short time interval but also require high spatial resolution for ...

Scalable Nanohelices for Predictive Studies and Enhanced 3D Visualization

Spring-like materials are ubiquitous in nature and of interest in nanotechnology for energy harvesting, hydrogen storage, and biological sensing applications.&#160; For predictive simulations, it has become increasingly important to be able to model the structure of nanohelices accurately.&#160; To study the effect of local structure on the properties of these complex geometries one must develop realistic models.&#160; To date, software packages are rather limited in creating atomistic helical models.&#160; This work focuses on producing atomistic models of silica glass (SiO2) nanoribbons and nanosprings for molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Using an MD model of &#8220;bulk&#8221; silica glass, two computational procedures to precisely create the shape of nanoribbons and nanosprings are presented.&#160; The first method employs the AWK programming language and open-source software to effectively carve various shapes of silica nanoribbons from the initial bulk model, using desired dimensions and parametric equations to define a helix.&#160; With this method, accurate atomistic silica nanoribbons can be generated for a range of pitch values and dimensions.&#160; The second method involves a more robust code which allows flexibility in modeling nanohelical structures.&#160; This approach utilizes a C++ code particularly written to implement pre-screening methods as well as the mathematical equations for a helix, resulting in greater precision and efficiency when creating nanospring models.&#160; Using these codes, well-defined and scalable nanoribbons and nanosprings suited for atomistic simulations can be effectively created.&#160; An added value in both open-source codes is that they can be adapted to reproduce different helical structures, independent of material.&#160; In addition, a MATLAB graphical user interface (GUI) is used to enhance learning through visualization and interaction for a general user with the atomistic helical structures.&#160; One application of these methods is the recent study of nanohelices via MD simulations for mechanical energy harvesting purposes.

Accurate modeling of nanohelical structures is important for predictive simulation studies leading to novel nanotechnology applications.&#160; Currently, software packages and codes are limited in creating atomistic helical models.&#160; We present two procedures designed to create atomistic nanohelical models for simulations, and a graphical interface to enhance research through visualization.

Spring-like materials are ubiquitous in nature and of interest in nanotechnology for energy harvesting, hydrogen storage, and biological sensing ...

Ambient Method for the Production of an Ionically Gated Carbon Nanotube Common Cathode in Tandem Organic Solar Cells

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two solution-processed polymeric cells connected in parallel by a transparent carbon nanotubes (CNT) interlayer. This structure includes improvements in fabrication techniques for tandem OPV devices. First the need for ambient-processed cathodes is considered. The CNT anode in the tandem device is tuned via ionic gating to become a common cathode. Ionic gating employs electric double layer charging to lower the work function of the CNT electrode. Secondly, the difficulty of sequentially stacking tandem layers by solution-processing is addressed. The devices are fabricated via solution and dry-lamination in ambient conditions with parallel processing steps. The method of fabricating the individual polymeric cells, the steps needed to laminate them together with a common CNT cathode, and then provide some representative results are described. These results demonstrate ionic gating of the CNT electrode to create a common cathode and addition of current and efficiency as a result of the lamination procedure.

A method of fabricating, in ambient conditions, organic photovoltaic tandem devices in a parallel configuration is presented. These devices feature an air-processed, semi-transparent, carbon nanotube common cathode.

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two ...

Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Detection of Biomolecules Using EBL Fabricated Nanostructured Substrates

Fabrication and characterization of conjugate nano-biological systems interfacing metallic nanostructures on solid supports with immobilized biomolecules is reported. The entire sequence of relevant experimental steps is described, involving the fabrication of nanostructured substrates using electron beam lithography, immobilization of biomolecules on the substrates, and their characterization utilizing surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Three different designs of nano-biological systems are employed, including protein A, glucose binding protein, and a dopamine binding DNA aptamer. In the latter two cases, the binding of respective ligands, D-glucose and dopamine, is also included. The three kinds of biomolecules are immobilized on nanostructured substrates by different methods, and the results of SERS imaging are reported. The capabilities of SERS to detect vibrational modes from surface-immobilized proteins, as well as to capture the protein-ligand and aptamer-ligand binding are demonstrated. The results also illustrate the influence of the surface nanostructure geometry, biomolecules immobilization strategy, Raman activity of the molecules and presence or absence of the ligand binding on the SERS spectra acquired.

We describe the fabrication and characterization of nano-biological systems interfacing nanostructured substrates with immobilized proteins and aptamers. The relevant experimental steps involving lithographic fabrication of nanostructured substrates, bio-functionalization, and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) characterization, are reported. SERS detection of surface-immobilized proteins, and probing of protein-ligand and aptamer-ligand binding is demonstrated.

Fabrication and characterization of conjugate nano-biological systems interfacing metallic nanostructures on solid supports with immobilized biomolecules ...

Development of an Experimental Setup for the Measurement of the Coefficient of Restitution under Vacuum Conditions

The Discrete Element Method is used for the simulation of particulate systems to describe and analyze them, to predict and afterwards optimize their behavior for single stages of a process or even an entire process. For the simulation with occurring particle-particle and particle-wall contacts, the value of the coefficient of restitution is required. It can be determined experimentally. The coefficient of restitution depends on several parameters like the impact velocity. Especially for fine particles the impact velocity depends on the air pressure and under atmospheric pressure high impact velocities cannot be reached. For this, a new experimental setup for free-fall tests under vacuum conditions is developed. The coefficient of restitution is determined with the impact and rebound velocity which are detected by a high-speed camera. To not hinder the view, the vacuum chamber is made of glass. Also a new release mechanism to drop one single particle under vacuum conditions is constructed. Due to that, all properties of the particle can be characterized beforehand.

The coefficient of restitution is a parameter that describes the loss of kinetic energy during collision. Here, a free-fall setup under vacuum conditions is developed to be able to determine the coefficient of restitution parameter for particles in micrometer range with high impact velocities.

The Discrete Element Method is used for the simulation of particulate systems to describe and analyze them, to predict and afterwards optimize their ...

Light Enhanced Hydrofluoric Acid Passivation: A Sensitive Technique for Detecting Bulk Silicon Defects

A procedure to measure the bulk lifetime (&#62;100 &#181;sec) of silicon wafers by temporarily attaining a very high level of surface passivation when immersing the wafers in hydrofluoric acid (HF) is presented. By this procedure three critical steps are required to attain the bulk lifetime. Firstly, prior to immersing silicon wafers into HF, they are chemically cleaned and subsequently etched in 25% tetramethylammonium hydroxide. Secondly, the chemically treated wafers are then placed into a large plastic container filled with a mixture of HF and hydrochloric acid, and then centered over an inductive coil for photoconductance (PC) measurements. Thirdly, to inhibit surface recombination and measure the bulk lifetime, the wafers are illuminated at 0.2 suns for 1 min&#160;using a halogen lamp, the illumination is switched off, and a PC measurement is immediately taken. By this procedure, the characteristics of bulk silicon defects can be accurately determined. Furthermore, it is anticipated that a sensitive RT surface passivation technique will be imperative for examining bulk silicon defects when their concentration is low (&#60;1012 cm-3).

A RT liquid surface passivation technique to investigate the recombination activity of bulk silicon defects is described. For the technique to be successful, three critical steps are required: (i) chemical cleaning and etching of silicon, (ii) immersion of silicon in 15% hydrofluoric acid and (iii) illumination for 1 min.

A procedure to measure the bulk lifetime (&#62;100 &#181;sec) of silicon wafers by temporarily attaining a very high level of surface passivation when ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

A Robotic Platform to Study the Foreflipper of the California Sea Lion

The California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), is an agile and powerful swimmer. Unlike many successful swimmers (dolphins, tuna), they generate most of their thrust with their large foreflippers. This protocol describes a robotic platform designed to study the hydrodynamic performance of the swimming California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). The robot is a model of the animal&#39;s foreflipper that is actuated by motors to replicate the motion of its propulsive stroke (the &#39;clap&#39;). The kinematics of the sea lion&#39;s propulsive stroke are extracted from video data of unmarked, non-research sea lions at the Smithsonian Zoological Park (SNZ). Those data form the basis of the actuation motion of the robotic flipper presented here. The geometry of the robotic flipper is based a on high-resolution laser scan of a foreflipper of an adult female sea lion, scaled to about 60% of the full-scale flipper. The articulated model has three joints, mimicking the elbow, wrist and knuckle joint of the sea lion foreflipper. The robotic platform matches dynamics properties&#8212;Reynolds number and tip speed&#8212;of the animal when accelerating from rest. The robotic flipper can be used to determine the performance (forces and torques) and resulting flowfields.

A robotic platform is described that will be used to study the hydrodynamic performance&#8212;forces and flowfields&#8212;of the swimming California sea lion. The robot is a model of the animal&#39;s foreflipper that is actuated by motors to replicate the motion of its propulsive stroke (the &#39;clap&#39;).

The California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), is an agile and powerful swimmer. Unlike many successful swimmers (dolphins, tuna), they generate most ...

Experimental Protocol to Determine the Chloride Threshold Value for Corrosion in Samples Taken from Reinforced Concrete Structures

The aging of reinforced concrete infrastructure in developed countries imposes an urgent need for methods to reliably assess the condition of these structures. Corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel is the most frequent cause for degradation. While it is well known that the ability of a structure to withstand corrosion depends strongly on factors such as the materials used or the age, it is common practice to rely on threshold values stipulated in standards or textbooks. These threshold values for corrosion initiation (Ccrit) are independent of the actual properties of a certain structure, which clearly limits the accuracy of condition assessments and service life predictions. The practice of using tabulated values can be traced to the lack of reliable methods to determine Ccrit on-site and in the laboratory.
Here, an experimental protocol to determine Ccrit for individual engineering structures or structural members is presented. A number of reinforced concrete samples are taken from structures and laboratory corrosion testing is performed. The main advantage of this method is that it ensures real conditions concerning parameters that are well known to greatly influence Ccrit, such as the steel-concrete interface, which cannot be representatively mimicked in laboratory-produced samples. At the same time, the accelerated corrosion test in the laboratory permits the reliable determination of Ccrit prior to corrosion initiation on the tested structure; this is a major advantage over all common condition assessment methods that only permit estimating the conditions for corrosion after initiation, i.e., when the structure is already damaged.
The protocol yields the statistical distribution of Ccrit for the tested structure. This serves as a basis for probabilistic prediction models for the remaining time to corrosion, which is needed for maintenance planning. This method can potentially be used in material testing of civil infrastructures, similar to established methods used for mechanical testing.

We propose a method to measure a parameter that is highly relevant for corrosion assessments or predictions of reinforced concrete structures, with the main advantage of permitting testing of samples from engineering structures. This ensures real conditions at the steel-concrete interface, which are crucial to avoid artifacts of laboratory-made samples.

The aging of reinforced concrete infrastructure in developed countries imposes an urgent need for methods to reliably assess the condition of these ...