Name: detection of abnormal prion protein by immunohistochemistry
Uploaded: 2023-05-05T14:20:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detection of Abnormal Prion Protein by Immunohistochemistry at JoVE.com

Este artigo foi financiado pelo Projeto POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029947 "Avaliação do risco de doenças crónicas em Portugal" apoiado pela FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia) - FEDER -Balcão2020. Além disso, os autores da unidade de investigação CECAV receberam financiamento da FCT, no âmbito do projeto UIDB/CVT/0772/2020.Agradecemos a Bruce C. Campbell, Diretor de Investigação (aposentado), Centro Regional de Investigação do Oeste, USDA, pela sua assistência.

O procedimento IHC aqui descrito é um componente do projeto de pesquisa FAIRJ-CT98-7021, "O estabelecimento de uma rede europeia para a vigilância de EET de ruminantes e a padronização e harmonização do processo e critérios para a identificação de casos suspeitos". Segue os critérios diagnósticos definidos pela Organização Mundial de Saúde Animal, WOAH (anteriormente denominado Office International des Épizooties, OIE)1 e Laboratório Europeu de Referência para EET em<sup class="xr...

<ol>
	<li>. WOAH, Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals Online Access. Chapter 3.4.5.-Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Version May 2021) and Chapter 3.8.11. - Scrapie (Version May 2022) Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-manual-online-access/">https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-manual-online-access/</a> (2022)</li><li>Ramos-Vara, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Principles+and+methods+of+immunohistochemistry.">Principles and methods of immunohistochemistry.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1641, 115-128 (2017).</li><li>Krenacs, L., Krenacs, T., Stelkovics, E., Raffeld, M., Oliver, C., Jamur, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat-Induced+antigen+retrieval+for+immunohistochemical+reactions+in+routinely+processed+paraffin+sections.+Immunocytochemical+Methods+and+Protocols.">Heat-Induced antigen retrieval for immunohistochemical reactions in routinely processed paraffin sections. Immunocytochemical Methods and Protocols.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 588, 103-119 (2010).</li><li>Duraiyan, J., Govindarajan, R., Kaliyappan, K., Palanisamy, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Applications+of+immunohistochemistry).">Applications of immunohistochemistry).</a> Journal Pharmacy Bioallied Sciences. 4, 307-309 (2012).</li><li>Orge, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuropathology+of+Animal+Prion+Diseases.">Neuropathology of Animal Prion Diseases.</a> Biomolecules. 11 (3), 466 (2021).</li><li>. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. 6th Edition Revised June 2020 Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cdc.gov/labs/pdf/SF_19_308133-A_BMBL6_00-BOOK-WEB-final-3.pdf">https://www.cdc.gov/labs/pdf/SF_19_308133-A_BMBL6_00-BOOK-WEB-final-3.pdf</a> (2022)</li><li>APHA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fixation,+tissue+processing,+histology+and+immunohistochemistry+procedures+for+diagnosis+of+animal+TSE+(BSE,+scrapie,+atypical+scrapie,+CWD).+Histo+&amp;+IHC+protocols+for+TSE+diagnosis_Rev_Jan2019.pdf.">Fixation, tissue processing, histology and immunohistochemistry procedures for diagnosis of animal TSE (BSE, scrapie, atypical scrapie, CWD). Histo &amp; IHC protocols for TSE diagnosis_Rev_Jan2019.pdf.</a> TSEglobalNet - International Reference Laboratory for TSE. , (2022).</li><li>Sample requirements for TSE testing and confirmation. Version 1.0. TSE EURL Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.izsplv.it/it/istituto/212-centri-eccellenza/laboratori-internazionali-riferimento/422-eurl_tses.html">https://www.izsplv.it/it/istituto/212-centri-eccellenza/laboratori-internazionali-riferimento/422-eurl_tses.html</a> (2019)</li><li>TSE EU Reference Laboratory Guidelines for the detection of Chronic Wasting Disease in cervids. Version 1.0. TSE EURL Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.izsplv.it/it/istituto/212-centri-eccellenza/laboratori-internazionali-riferimento/422-eurl_tses.html">https://www.izsplv.it/it/istituto/212-centri-eccellenza/laboratori-internazionali-riferimento/422-eurl_tses.html</a> (2019)</li><li>Machado, C. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TSE+Monitoring+in+Wildlife+Epidemiology,+Transmission,+Diagnosis,+Genetics+and+Control.">TSE Monitoring in Wildlife Epidemiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, Genetics and Control.</a> Wildlife Population Monitoring. IntechOpen. , (2019).</li><li>APHA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuropathology:+Confirmatory+diagnosis+of+transmissible+spongiform+encephalopathies+(TSEs)+in+cattle+and+small+ruminants.+Confirmatory+(Histo+&amp;+IHC)+diagnostic+criteria+Rev_Jan2019.pdf.">Neuropathology: Confirmatory diagnosis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) in cattle and small ruminants. Confirmatory (Histo &amp; IHC) diagnostic criteria Rev_Jan2019.pdf.</a> TSEglobalNet - International Reference Laboratory for TSE. , (2019).</li><li>Ryder, S. J., Spencer, Y. I., Bellerby, P. J., March, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunohistochemical+detection+of+PrP+in+the+medulla+oblongata+of+sheep:+The+spectrum+of+staining+in+normal+and+scrapie-affected+sheep.">Immunohistochemical detection of PrP in the medulla oblongata of sheep: The spectrum of staining in normal and scrapie-affected sheep.</a> The Veterinary Record. 148 (1), 7-13 (2001).</li><li>Simmons, M. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+classical+bovine+spongiform+encephalopathy:+definition+and+progression+of+neural+PrP+immunolabeling+in+relation+to+diagnosis+and+disease+controls.">Experimental classical bovine spongiform encephalopathy: definition and progression of neural PrP immunolabeling in relation to diagnosis and disease controls.</a> Veterinary Pathology. 48 (5), 948-963 (2011).</li><li>Orge, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+H-type+BSE+in+Portugal.">Identification of H-type BSE in Portugal.</a> Prion. 9 (1), 22-28 (2015).</li><li>Orge, L., Simas, J. P., Fernandes, A. C., Ramos, M., Galo, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Similarity+of+the+lesion+profile+of+BSE+in+Portuguese+cattle+to+that+described+in+British+cattle.">Similarity of the lesion profile of BSE in Portuguese cattle to that described in British cattle.</a> Veterinary Record. 147 (17), 486-488 (2000).</li><li>Pires, M. A., Travassos, F. S., G&#228;rtner, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atlas+of+veterinary+pathology.">Atlas of veterinary pathology.</a> Biopathology. Lidel VII. 195 (6), 179-180 (2004).</li><li>Pires, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunology+protocols,+didactic+series.">Immunology protocols, didactic series.</a> Applied Sciences. , 357 (2010).</li></ol>

As EET são doenças zoonóticas potenciais. Após o surgimento da BSE em 1986 no Reino Unido, Portugal tornou-se um dos Estados-Membros da União Europeia com maior incidência desta doença14,15. Para controlar esta doença, surgiram outras EET (tremor epizoótico clássico e atípico, variantes da EEB e, atualmente, a vigilância da doença crónica emaciante nos cervídeos), foram desenvolvidos mecanismos de vigilância pela Direção-Geral da Alimentação e...

De acordo com a hipótese do príon, a isoforma anormal (PrP Sc) é o componente primário, ou único, do agente infeccioso nas encefalopatias espongiformes transmissíveis (EET). A confirmação para o diagnóstico de EET baseia-se na imunodetecção dePrP Sc por meio da aplicação de protocolos de imunohistoquímica (IHQ) e/ou métodos de immunoblot ocidental (WB) de tecidos encéfalos1.
A imunoistoquímica é um método que emprega anticorpos monoclonais ou, em alguns casos, policlonais (como anticorpos primários) como primeiro passo na imunomarcação de antígenos especificamente direcionados de interesse localizados em células de um corte tecidual. Qualquer ligação anticorpo-antígeno primário eficaz é então visualizada usando anticorpos secundários específicos para os anticorpos primários. Esses anticorpos secundários são conjugados a enzimas, como a peroxidase de raiz forte (HRP) ou a fosfatase alcalina (FA). A visualização é então obtida pela adição de um substrato a essas enzimas, produzindo produtos de cor insolúveis localizados em áreas onde os anticorpos primários estão ligados aos antígenos alvo. Uma melhor visualização pode ser obtida pela contracoloração, em que um corante é usado para criar um contraste entre tecido imunomarcado e não imunomarcado2.
Com a IHQ usando tecidos fixados em formalina e embebidos em parafina (FFPE), a fixação de formalina pode anular a eficácia dos anticorpos primários devido à reticulação por formaldeído e ao aquecimento e desidratação durante a inclusão da parafina. Estas alteram a conformação das proteínas, destruindo, desnaturando ou mascarando os epítopos, diminuindo ou anulando sua detecção3. Como tal, isso requer recuperação de antígeno (AR). As técnicas de RA interrompem a ligação cruzada de grupos químicos relacionados ao formaldeído nas moléculas antigênicas, restaurando ou desmascarando a conformação antígeno-proteína original. Isso resulta na recuperação da afinidade anticorpo-antígeno (epítopo) para a imunomarcação. A eventual eficácia da RA depende das qualidades do antígeno alvo e/ou do anticorpo primário2.
A recuperação do antígeno induzido pelo calor (epítopo) (HIER) é um procedimento do AR3 e é usado rotineiramente para detecção de IHQPrP Sc , conforme descrito aqui. A imunoistoquímica é essencial para o diagnóstico e utilizada em laboratórios de pesquisa para determinar a distribuição tecidual de um antígeno associado à patologia. É amplamente utilizada no diagnóstico e pesquisa de câncer, neurociências, doenças infecciosas4, entre outras. Para EET, a IHQ desempenha um papel importante no diagnóstico e na pesquisa para confirmar e investigar a distribuição dePrP Sc em hospedeiros naturais e modelos experimentais. A IHQ contribui para estudos de patogênese priônica e análise de tipos e padrões de deposição dePrP Sc , ou seja, em tecidosneurais5, para detectar desvios de infecções rotineiramente descritas e identificar possíveis novas cepas de príons.
Uma vez que os priões da encefalopatia espongiforme bovina (EEB) podem infectar seres humanos, certos protocolos laboratoriais envolvidos no trabalho com a EEB podem exigir a utilização de instalações e práticas de BSL-36. Estes incluem a utilização de um recipiente secundário selado para transportar potenciais amostras de tecidos infectados com EEB dentro do instituto e do laboratório. Inclui também a designação de áreas de contenção e de equipamento dedicado ao prião para a investigação e análise da BSE, sempre que possível. Isso é feito para evitar a contaminação fora da área de trabalho e proporcionar um espaço confinado, uma vez que os procedimentos de descontaminação se tornam necessários.
Assim, o Laboratório de Patologia do INIAV segue as instalaçõese práticas de nível de biossegurança 3 (BSL-3) recomendadas 6 para gerenciar amostras potenciais de tecidos infectados por príons de bovinos, pequenos ruminantes e cervídeos associados à vigilância de EET.
Tecidos fixados em formalina e incluídos em parafina incluídos em procedimentos de diagnóstico ou pesquisa de EET, especialmente no sistema nervoso central, podem ser potencialmente infecciosos. Assim, esses tecidos fixados devem ser tratados com ácido fórmico para reduzir a infectividade dos príons, se presentes, antes do processamento do tecido. Isso é realizado através da colocação de tecidos fixos e aparados (aproximadamente 2-4 mm de espessura) em um de processamento. O é então imerso em ácido fórmico a 98% (por 1 h). Após a imersão, os com tecidos são lavados em água corrente da torneira por 30 min e retornam ao fixador antes do processamento posterior. Se os cortes de tecido não forem tratados antes do processamento, os cortes de tecido pós-microtômicos devem ser imersos em ácido fórmico não diluído por pelo menos 5 minutos antes da coloração histológica7. O protocolo IHQ para PrPSc inclui uma etapa rotineira de desmascaramento de epítopos de ácido fórmico, servindo também para inativar príons7. Após essas etapas de inativação do príon, os tecidos fixados resultantes podem então ser processados em BSL-2 usando práticas BSL-2 padrão.
O requisito mínimo de amostragem de tecidos para o diagnóstico de EET em qualquer animal incluído na vigilância de EET é a recolha do tronco encefálico (ao nível do obex). Além disso, para a detecção de EEB e tremor epizoótico atípicos, recomenda-se que parte do cerebelo também seja coletada 1,8. Para o diagnóstico de DC, tanto os linfonodos do tronco encefálico (obex) quanto os retrofaríngeos devem ser testados, pois a PrP Sc pode ser detectada em tecidos linfoides semPrP Sc detectável no obex9, revisada por Machado et al.10.
A porção obex do tronco encefálico inclui os locais-alvo diagnósticos da EET, a saber, o núcleo vagal dorsal (DVN), o núcleo do trato solitário (NST) e o núcleo do trato espinhal do nervo trigêmeo (V). Estas zonas apresentam consistentemente acumulação bilateral dePrP Sc , mesmo nas fases iniciais da EEB e do tremor epizoótico clássico. Nos casos clínicos de EET avançada, todas as áreas de substância cinzenta no tronco encefálico apresentam ampla distribuição dePrP Sc11.
Antes da secção e processamento, as amostras de encéfalo são avaliadas (Figura 1) para verificar o grau de autólise e a presença de qualquer dano tecidual que possa comprometer a adequação da amostra para o diagnóstico confirmatório baseado em IHQ8. Para validar a integridade dos protocolos preparativos e dos resultados analíticos, as amostras de tecido positivas e negativas para EET são incluídas como controles em conjunto com a preparação de tecidos de casos de teste em cada ensaio.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64560/64560fig01.jpg"> Figura 1: O procedimento de IHCPrP Sc . Representação mostrando o passo-a-passo do procedimento de IHQPrP Sc , desde a desparafinização dos cortes teciduais até a eventual imunomarcação e detecção (FFPE - Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded; Mab - anticorpo monoclonal; DAB - 3,3' diaminobenzidina). Esta figura foi criada em BioRender.com. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64560/64560fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Clique aqui para ver uma versão maior desta figura.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Absolute ethanol&#160;</td>
			<td>Labchem</td>
			<td>LB0507-9010</td>
			<td>Undituled</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Diluted 90%, 70% and 50% in distilled water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Avidin-biotin complex and peroxidase 
			Vectastain Elite ABC kit Peroxidase</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>PK-6100</td>
			<td>Prepare and gently mix 30 min before use according to kit instructions. Do not mix after standing.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated secondary antibody (Horse anti-mouse IgG H+L)&#160;</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>BA-2000-1.5</td>
			<td>Dilute at 1/200 in TBS with 10% horse normal serum. Prepare the volume required depending on the number of sections.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chromogen Diaminobenzidine- DAB, substrate kit, Peroxidase&#160;</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>SK-4100</td>
			<td>Prepare before use according to kit instructions. 
			Use 400 &#181;L of solution per section.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DakoCytomation Pascal pressure chamber</td>
			<td>DAKO</td>
			<td>S2800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ehrlich&#8217;s Hematoxylin:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>115938</td>
			<td>Dissolve 2 g of hematoxylin in 100 mL of absolute ethanol. Add 100 mL of distilled water, 10 mL of glacial acetic acid and 15 g of potassium alum with constant stirring. Add 100 mL of glycerin. The natural oxidation process takes 2 months, before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Absolute ethanol&#160;</td>
			<td>Labchem</td>
			<td>LB0507-9010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid&#160;</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>101830</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium alum</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.01047.1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerin</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.04091.1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Endogenous Peroxidase Block solution (3% concentration H2O2):</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>40 mL Hydrogen peroxide (30% w/w) in 360 mL Methanol. 
			Prepare before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen peroxide (30% w/w)</td>
			<td>Scharlau</td>
			<td>HI0136</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>322415-2L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formic acid 98%</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.00264.1000</td>
			<td>Undiluted</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome&#160;</td>
			<td>Shandon-AS325</td>
			<td>Microtome&#160;</td>
			<td>Shandon-AS325</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mounting medium Entellan</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>107960</td>
			<td>Ready- to- use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (20% ) block solution in TBS: 
			Horse normal serum</td>
			<td> 
			Gibco</td>
			<td> 
			16050-122&#160;</td>
			<td>Prepare final volume according to the number of sections in the assay 
			(200 &#181;L of solution per section).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primary antibody anti-PrP Mouse MAb 2G11&#160;</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>MCA2460</td>
			<td>PrP 146-R154R171182 
			Ovine including atypical scrapie, cervine, feline. Not suitable for bovine. 
			According to the number of sections in the assay (200 &#181;L of solution per section) and antibody dilution, prepare final volume in TBS supplemented with 10% of normal serum from the species the secondary antibody was raised in (horse normal serum) 
			Usual antibody dilution: MAb 2G11 1/100 but working dilution should be established in every new batch to get the concentration to give the strongest labelling with lowest background. For storage, freeze aliquot volumes of a minimum of 10 &#956;L into sterile microtubes. Defrost and use one aliquot at a time.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primary antibody anti-PrP Mouse MAb 12F10&#160;</td>
			<td>Cayman&#160; Chemical Company&#160;</td>
			<td>189710</td>
			<td>PrP142-160 
			Bovine, not suitable for ovine 
			Usual antibody dilution: 1/200 but working dilution should also be established. Prepare as MAb 2G11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shandon CoverplateTM chamber</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>72110017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shandon Sequenza&#174; Immunstaining center&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>73300001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shandon Sequenza&#174; Immunstaining slide rack</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>73310017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solution Citrate Buffer (10 mM pH 6.1):</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>2.55 g Tri-sodium citrate dihydrate&#160; and 0.255 g Citric acid in one litre purified water. 
			Adjust pH of working solution to 6.1 using 10 mM citric acid solution (1.05 g citric acid in 500 mL purified water) 
			Prepare on assay day.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tri-sodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>S4641-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Citric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C0759</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Staining jar and basket</td>
			<td>Deltalab&#160;</td>
			<td>19360</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>19361</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost Plus microscope slides</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>631-0108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris-Buffered Saline solution (TBS) (50 mM TRIZMA BASE; 0.8% NaCI; pH 7.6):</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>10xTBS (stock solution 0.5 M TRIZMA BASE; 8% NaCI; pH 7.6): 
			TRIZMA BASE 60,57 g and NaCl 80 g in 800 mL purified water. Adjust pH of stock solution using Hydrochloric acid 37% and final volume to one litre with purified water (keep 5&#177; 3 &#176;C until 2 months) 
			Dilute TBS stock solution 1/10 on assay day.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIZMA BASE</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T6066-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>106404</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene&#160;</td>
			<td>Panreac Applied Chem ITW reagents</td>
			<td>251769</td>
			<td>Undiluted</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

detection of abnormal prion protein by immunohistochemistry

As proteínas priônicas anormais (PrPSc) são a isoforma associada à doença da proteína priônica celular e marcadores diagnósticos de encefalopatias espongiformes transmissíveis (EET). Estas doenças neurodegenerativas afectam os seres humanos e várias espécies animais e incluem o tremor epizoótico, a encefalopatia espongiforme bovina zoonótica (EEB), a doença crónica dos cervídeos (CWD) e a recém-identificada doença do prião dos camelos (DPC). O diagnóstico de EET baseia-se na imunodetecção dePrP Sc pela aplicação dos métodos de imunohistoquímica (IHQ) e imunoblot ocidental (WB) em tecidos encéfalos, ou seja, o tronco cerebral (nível obex). A imunoistoquímica é um método amplamente utilizado que utiliza anticorpos primários (monoclonais ou policlonais) contra antígenos de interesse em células de um corte tecidual. A ligação anticorpo-antígeno pode ser visualizada por uma reação de cor que permanece localizada na área do tecido ou célula onde o anticorpo foi alvo. Assim, nas doenças priônicas, como em outros campos de pesquisa, as técnicas de imuno-histoquímica não são utilizadas apenas para fins diagnósticos, mas também em estudos de patogênese. Tais estudos envolvem a detecção dos padrões e tipos dePrP Sc a partir daqueles descritos anteriormente para identificar as novas cepas de príons. Uma vez que a EEB pode infectar seres humanos, recomenda-se que sejam utilizadas instalações e/ou práticas de laboratório de biossegurança nível 3 (BSL-3) para manusear bovinos, pequenos ruminantes e amostras de cervídeos incluídas na vigilância das EET. Além disso, recomendam-se, sempre que possível, equipamentos de contenção e dedicados a príons para limitar a contaminação. O procedimento de IHQPrP Sc consiste em uma etapa de desmascaramento de epítopos de ácido fórmico também atuando como uma medida de inativação do príon, uma vez que os tecidos fixados em formalina e emblocados em parafina usados nesta técnica permanecem infecciosos. Ao interpretar os resultados, deve-se ter cuidado para distinguir a imunomarcação não específica da rotulação alvo. Para esse propósito, é importante reconhecer artefatos de imunomarcação obtidos em animais controles conhecidos negativos para EET para diferenciá-los de tipos específicos de imunomarcaçãoPrP Sc , que podem variar entre cepas de EET, espécie hospedeira e genótipo prnp , descritos mais detalhadamente neste artigo.

Dado que a imunomarcação alvo não específica é possível, é importante determinar o nível de imunomarcação inespecífica em animais controles conhecidos negativos para EET. Esse é um passo importante para interpretar adequadamente a imunomarcação específica paraPrP Sc7 (Figura 2). Observou-se que a marcação não-alvo por anticorpos anti-PrP ocorre como discreta coloração intraneuronal de partículas finas (mais evidente no núcleo...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detection of Abnormal Prion Protein by Immunohistochemistry at JoVE.com

Detection of Abnormal Prion Protein by Immunohistochemistry

A imunomarcação de proteínas priônicas anormais usando protocolos de imunohistoquímica requer amostras específicas e metodologias de preparação de anticorpos anti-PrP. O presente protocolo descreve os principais passos na remoção de epítopos para garantir a imunomarcação adequada de PrP e minimizar a coloração de fundo inespecífica. Além disso, essa abordagem considera medidas de biossegurança ao realizar estudos imunohistoquímicos com os tecidos infectados por príons.

Detecção de Proteína Priônica Anormal por Imunohistoquímica

Abnormal prion proteins (PrPSc) are the disease-associated isoform of cellular prion protein and diagnostic markers of transmissible spongiform ...

A técnica permite o diagnóstico confirmatório de doenças priônicas pela técnica de scrapie PrP em tecidos, analisando os tipos e distribuição do scrapie PrP para avaliar desvios punitivos ao perfil conhecido de deposição de scrapie PrP. A técnica é padronizada e utiliza anticorpos específicos contra o scrapie PrP, possibilitando a visualização da deposição do scrapie PrP nos tecidos. A técnica também fornece informações sobre a área neuroanatômica e o tipo de células.Comece colocando as lâminas com as seções de tecido em um cesto de coloração de aço inoxidável. Saia a cesta em um banho de xileno. Após três minutos, retire e mergulhe o cesto novamente.Para remover o xileno e reidratar as seções, mergulhe o cesto em um banho absoluto de etanol. Após três minutos, retire e mergulhe o cesto novamente. Seque ao ar as seções antes de colocá-las em banho de etanol 90% por um minuto.Em seguida, transfira a seção para um banho de etanol 70% por mais um minuto. Para cada tratamento em banho de etanol, agite suavemente o cesto deslizante duas vezes e escorra o cesto antes da próxima transferência. Transfira a cesta para um banho de etanol a 50% por um minuto.Imergir cuidadosamente os cortes de tecido em ácido fórmico a 98% à temperatura ambiente durante 30 minutos. Enxaguar as seções em água corrente por cinco minutos, seguido de enxaguar duas vezes em água destilada. Use um recipiente de coloração de aço inoxidável na câmara de pressão preenchida com 500 mililitros de água destilada para pré-tratar o tampão citrato de 10 milimolares a 98 graus Celsius por 20 minutos.Para fins de controle de qualidade, coloque uma seção de fita indicadora de autoclave adesiva no cesto para monitorar a temperatura e a pressão. Assim que o alarme indicar que o equipamento atingiu o tempo e a temperatura do programa, mergulhe o cesto com corrediças. Em seguida, inicie o programa na câmara de pressão para o Set Point 2 e registre a pressão inicial e final deste programa.Para a inativação da peroxidase endógena, imergir o cesto de lâminas contendo as seções da amostra em um banho de peróxido de hidrogênio a 3% em metanol por 30 minutos. Ponte as seções em água corrente por cinco minutos Após a drenagem, mergulhe as seções em soro fisiológico tamponada com Tris por mais cinco minutos. Para imunodetecção, coloque cada lâmina em um suporte de placa de cobertura comercialmente disponível pré-umedecido com soro fisiológico tamponada com Tris, com o lado do tecido voltado para o suporte e as bordas da lâmina coincidindo com os dois pontos inferiores do suporte.Certifique-se de evitar bolhas de ar. Segure o conjunto do suporte deslizante entre o polegar e o indicador. Mantenha um dedo na parte superior da lâmina de amostra e o outro na parte inferior do suporte e, em seguida, coloque o conjunto na galeria do sistema.Para garantir que o conjunto esteja bem montado, preencha o poço entre a lâmina de amostra e o suporte com soro fisiológico tamponada com Tris sem transbordá-lo. A partir deste ponto, certifique-se de que aproximadamente 80 microlitros de solução salina tamponada com Tris devem ser retidos entre o suporte e a lâmina. Não deixe as seções secarem.Diminua a coloração de fundo antes do tratamento com o anticorpo primário pré-incubando as amostras de lâmina por 30 minutos com soro 20% normal da mesma espécie que o hospedeiro do anticorpo secundário em solução salina tamponada com Tris. Sem lavar as seções, aplique 200 microlitros da solução de anticorpos primários diretamente em cada poço do conjunto de suporte deslizante e incube por 60 minutos à temperatura ambiente. Para lavar as seções, encha os poços com soro fisiológico tamponada com Tris e aguarde cinco minutos.Repita a lavagem duas vezes. Em seguida, diluir o anticorpo secundário biotinilado na concentração de 1 a 200 em solução salina tamponada com Tris com 10% de soro de cavalo. Repare o volume necessário dependendo do número de seções a serem tratadas.Aplicar 200 microlitros de solução de anticorpos secundários em cada poço do conjunto de suporte deslizante. Após 30 minutos de incubação à temperatura ambiente, repetir a lavagem com solução salina tamponada com Tris. Para incubação com peroxidase do complexo avidina-biotina, preparar o reagente 30 minutos antes do uso e aplicar 200 microlitros da solução em cada poço do suporte da placa deslizante.Uma vez feito, incubar o porta-placas por 30 minutos à temperatura ambiente. O nível de imunomarcação inespecífica em animais controle negativos para encefalopatias espongiformes transmissíveis conhecidas foi determinado para interpretar adequadamente a imunomarcação de proteínas priônicas anormais específicas. Observou-se que a marcação não-alvo por anticorpos anti-PrP ocorre como discreta coloração intraneuronal de partículas finas, fios lineares finos irregulares de coloração no neurópilo, marcação difusa não particulada em algumas áreas da substância cinzenta e branca e marcação citoplasmática difusa de neurônios.A tabela resume a descrição dos tipos de proteínas priônicas anormais imunomarcadas observadas na encefalopatia espongiforme bovina, no tremor epizoótico clássico e atípico e na doença crônica emaciante dos cervídeos para um diagnóstico positivo e estabelece critérios para resultados negativos, inconclusivos e inadequados. Todos os passos são muito importantes. O pH das soluções e a temperatura ambiente são características importantes para o sucesso desta técnica.O desenvolvimento de imunohistoquímica para detectar tanto o tremor epizoótico PrP quanto o tipo de células pode fornecer informações sobre cada célula envolvida na patogênese primária.

detection-of-abnormal-prion-protein-by-immunohistochemistry

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal. Such analysis of two or more genes needs to be complemented with in situ hybridization of other genes, or immunohistochemistry of their proteins, both in whole mounted developing organs or sections for detailed resolution of the cellular and tissue expression alterations. Combining multiple gene alterations requires the use of cre or flipase to conditionally delete genes and avoid embryonic lethality. Required breeding schemes dramatically enhance effort and cost proportional to the number of genes mutated, with an outcome of very few animals with the full repertoire of genetic modifications desired. Amortizing the vast amount of effort and time to obtain these few precious specimens that are carrying multiple mutations necessitates tissue optimization. Moreover, investigating a single animal with multiple techniques makes it easier to correlate gene deletion defects with expression profiles. We have developed a technique to obtain a more thorough analysis of a given animal; with the ability to analyze several different histologically recognizable structures as well as gene and protein expression all from the same specimen in both whole mounted organs and sections. Although mice have been utilized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique it can be applied to a wide array of animals. To do this we combine lipophilic dye tracing, whole mount in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology to extract the maximal possible amount of data.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

Combinando corante lipofílico, In situ Hibridação, imunohistoquímica e histologia

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal.  Such analysis of ...

Neurociência

Detection of Microregional Hypoxia in Mouse Cerebral Cortex by Two-photon Imaging of Endogenous NADH Fluorescence

The brain's ability to function at high levels of metabolic demand depends on continuous oxygen supply through blood flow and tissue oxygen diffusion. Here we present a visualized experimental and methodological protocol to directly visualize microregional tissue hypoxia and to infer perivascular oxygen gradients in the mouse cortex. It is based on the non-linear relationship between nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) endogenous fluorescence intensity and oxygen partial pressure in the tissue, where observed tissue NADH fluorescence abruptly increases at tissue oxygen levels below 10 mmHg1. We use two-photon excitation at 740 nm which allows for concurrent excitation of intrinsic NADH tissue fluorescence and blood plasma contrasted with Texas-Red dextran. The advantages of this method over existing approaches include the following: it takes advantage of an intrinsic tissue signal and can be performed using standard two-photon in vivo imaging equipment; it permits continuous monitoring in the whole field of view with a depth resolution of ~50 &mu;m. We demonstrate that brain tissue areas furthest from cerebral blood vessels correspond to vulnerable watershed areas which are the first to become functionally hypoxic following a decline in vascular oxygen supply. This method allows one to image microregional cortical oxygenation and is therefore useful for examining the role of inadequate or restricted tissue oxygen supply in neurovascular diseases and stroke.

Here we describe a method to directly visualize microregional tissue hypoxia in the mouse cortex in vivo. It is based on concurrent two-photon imaging of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and the cortical microcirculation. This method is useful for high resolution analysis of tissue oxygen supply.

Detecção de hipóxia microrregional no Cortex Cerebral mouse por imagem de dois fótons de fluorescência endógena NADH

The brain's ability to function at high levels of metabolic demand depends on continuous oxygen supply through blood flow and tissue oxygen diffusion. ...

Wholemount Immunohistochemistry for Revealing Complex Brain Topography

The repeated and well-understood cellular architecture of the cerebellum make it an ideal model system for exploring brain topography. Underlying its relatively uniform cytoarchitecture is a complex array of parasagittal domains of gene and protein expression. The molecular compartmentalization of the cerebellum is mirrored by the anatomical and functional organization of afferent fibers. To fully appreciate the complexity of cerebellar organization we previously refined a wholemount staining approach for high throughput analysis of patterning defects in the mouse cerebellum. This protocol describes in detail the reagents, tools, and practical steps that are useful to successfully reveal protein expression patterns in the adult mouse cerebellum by using wholemount immunostaining. The steps highlighted here demonstrate the utility of this method using the expression of zebrinII/aldolaseC as an example of how the fine topography of the brain can be revealed in its native three-dimensional conformation. Also described are adaptations to the protocol that allow for the visualization of protein expression in afferent projections and large cerebella for comparative studies of molecular topography. To illustrate these applications, data from afferent staining of the rat cerebellum are included.

Neural circuits are topographically organized into functional compartments with specific molecular profiles. Here, we provide the practical and technical steps for revealing global brain topography using a versatile wholemount immunohistochemical staining approach. We demonstrate the utility of the method using the well-understood cytoarchitecture and circuitry of cerebellum.

Imuno-histoquímica para Topografia Wholemount cerebrais, Complexo

The repeated and well-understood cellular architecture of the cerebellum make it an ideal model system for exploring brain topography. Underlying its ...

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including lens-secreting cone cells, pigment cells, a bristle cell and eight photoreceptors (PRs) R1-R8 2. The PRs have specialized microvillar structures, the rhabdomeres, which contain light-sensitive pigments, the Rhodopsins (Rhs). The rhabdomeres of six PRs (R1-R6) form a trapezoid and contain Rh1 3 4. The rhabdomeres of R7 and R8 are positioned in tandem in the center of the trapezoid and share the same path of light. R7 and R8 PRs stochastically express different combinations of Rhs in two main subtypes5: In the 'p' subtype, Rh3 in pR7s is coupled with Rh5 in pR8s, whereas in the 'y' subtype, Rh4 in yR7s is associated with Rh6 in yR8s 6 7 8.
Early specification of PRs and development of ommatidia begins in the larval eye-antennal imaginal disc, a monolayer of epithelial cells. A wave of differentiation sweeps across the disc9 and initiates the assembly of undifferentiated cells into ommatidia10-11. The 'founder cell' R8 is specified first and recruits R1-6 and then R7 12-14. Subsequently, during pupal development, PR differentiation leads to extensive morphological changes 15, including rhabdomere formation, synaptogenesis and eventually rh expression.
In this protocol, we describe methods for retinal dissections and immunohistochemistry at three defined periods of retina development, which can be applied to address a variety of questions concerning retinal formation and developmental pathways. Here, we use these methods to visualize the stepwise PR differentiation at the single-cell level in whole mount larval, midpupal and adult retinas (Figure 1).

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The Drosophila retina is a crystal-like lattice composed of a small number of cell types that are generated in a stereotyped manner 1. Its amenability to sophisticated genetic analysis allows the study of complex developmental programs. This protocol describes dissections and immunohistochemistry of retinas at three discrete developmental stages, with a focus on photoreceptor differentiation.

Dissecção e imunohistoquímica de larvas, pupa e adulto<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including ...

Detection of Protein Palmitoylation in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons by Immunoprecipitation and Acyl-Biotin Exchange (ABE)

Palmitoylation is a post-translational lipid modification involving the attachment of a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitate, to cysteine residues of substrate proteins through a labile thioester bond [reviewed in1]. Palmitoylation of a substrate protein increases its hydrophobicity, and typically facilitates its trafficking toward cellular membranes. Recent studies have shown palmitoylation to be one of the most common lipid modifications in neurons1, 2, suggesting that palmitate turnover is an important mechanism by which these cells regulate the targeting and trafficking of proteins. The identification and detection of palmitoylated substrates can therefore better our understanding of protein trafficking in neurons.
Detection of protein palmitoylation in the past has been technically hindered due to the lack of a consensus sequence among substrate proteins, and the reliance on metabolic labeling of palmitoyl-proteins with 3H-palmitate, a time-consuming biochemical assay with low sensitivity. Development of the Acyl-Biotin Exchange (ABE) assay enables more rapid and high sensitivity detection of palmitoylated proteins2-4, and is optimal for measuring the dynamic turnover of palmitate on neuronal proteins. The ABE assay is comprised of three biochemical steps (Figure 1): 1) irreversible blockade of unmodified cysteine thiol groups using N-ethylmaliemide (NEM), 2) specific cleavage and unmasking of the palmitoylated cysteine's thiol group by hydroxylamine (HAM), and 3) selective labeling of the palmitoylated cysteine using a thiol-reactive biotinylation reagent, biotin-BMCC. Purification of the thiol-biotinylated proteins following the ABE steps has differed, depending on the overall goal of the experiment.
Here, we describe a method to purify a palmitoylated protein of interest in primary hippocampal neurons by an initial immunoprecipitation (IP) step using an antibody directed against the protein, followed by the ABE assay and western blotting to directly measure palmitoylation levels of that protein, which is termed the IP-ABE assay. Low-density cultures of embryonic rat hippocampal neurons have been widely used to study the localization, function, and trafficking of neuronal proteins, making them ideally suited for studying neuronal protein palmitoylation using the IP-ABE assay. The IP-ABE assay mainly requires standard IP and western blotting reagents, and is only limited by the availability of antibodies against the target substrate. This assay can easily be adapted for the purification and detection of transfected palmitoylated proteins in heterologous cell cultures, primary neuronal cultures derived from various brain tissues of both mouse and rat, and even primary brain tissue itself.

Detection of Protein Palmitoylation in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons by Immunoprecipitation and Acyl-Biotin Exchange ABE

The reversible addition of palmitate to proteins is an important regulator of intracellular protein trafficking. This is of particular interest in neurons where many synaptic proteins are palmitoylated. We utilize a simple biochemical method to detect palmitoylated proteins in cultured neurons, which can be adapted for multiple cell types and tissues.

Detecção de palmitoylation proteína em neurônios cultivados por imunoprecipitação e Acil-Biotina Exchange (ABE)

Palmitoylation is a post-translational lipid  modification involving the attachment of a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid,  palmitate, to cysteine residues ...

Detection of In Situ Protein-protein Complexes at the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction Using Proximity Ligation Assay

Discs large (Dlg) is a conserved member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase family, and serves as a major scaffolding protein at the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in Drosophila. Previous studies have shown that the postsynaptic distribution of Dlg at the larval NMJ overlaps with that of Hu-li tai shao (Hts), a homologue to the mammalian adducins. In addition, Dlg and Hts are observed to form a complex with each other based on co-immunoprecipitation experiments involving whole adult fly lysates. Due to the nature of these experiments, however, it was unknown whether this complex exists specifically at the NMJ during larval development.
Proximity Ligation Assay (PLA) is a recently developed technique used mostly in cell and tissue culture that can detect protein-protein interactions in situ. In this assay, samples are incubated with primary antibodies against the two proteins of interest using standard immunohistochemical procedures. The primary antibodies are then detected with a specially designed pair of oligonucleotide-conjugated secondary antibodies, termed PLA probes, which can be used to generate a signal only when the two probes have bound in close proximity to each other. Thus, proteins that are in a complex can be visualized. Here, it is demonstrated how PLA can be used to detect in situ protein-protein interactions at the Drosophila larval NMJ. The technique is performed on larval body wall muscle preparations to show that a complex between Dlg and Hts does indeed exist at the postsynaptic region of NMJs.

Detection of In Situ Protein-protein Complexes at the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction Using Proximity Ligation Assay

This protocol demonstrates how Proximity Ligation Assay can be used to detect in situ protein-protein interactions at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction. With this technique, Discs large and Hu-li tai shao are shown to form a complex at the postsynaptic region, an association previously identified through co-immunoprecipitation.

Detecção de<em&gt; In Situ</em&gt; Complexos proteína-proteína no<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larval Junção Neuromuscular Usando Proximity Ligation Assay

Discs large (Dlg) is a conserved member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase family, and serves as a major scaffolding protein at the larval ...

Bioluminescence Imaging of Neuroinflammation in Transgenic Mice After Peripheral Inoculation of Alpha-Synuclein Fibrils

To study the prion-like behavior of misfolded alpha-synuclein, mouse models are needed that allow fast and simple transmission of alpha-synuclein prionoids, which cause neuropathology within the central nervous system (CNS). Here we describe that intraglossal or intraperitoneal injection of alpha-synuclein fibrils into bigenic Tg(M83+/-:Gfap-luc+/-) mice, which overexpress human alpha-synuclein with the A53T mutation from the prion protein promoter and firefly luciferase from the promoter for glial fibrillary acidic protein (Gfap), is sufficient to induce neuropathologic disease. In comparison to homozygous Tg(M83+/+) mice that develop severe neurologic symptoms beginning at an age of 8 months, heterozygous Tg(M83+/-:Gfap-luc+/-) animals remain free of spontaneous disease until they reach an age of 22 months. Interestingly, injection of alpha-synuclein fibrils via the intraperitoneal route induced neurologic disease with paralysis in four of five Tg(M83+/-:Gfap-luc+/-) mice with a median incubation time of 229 &#177;17 days. Diseased animals showed severe deposits of phosphorylated alpha-synuclein in their brains and spinal cords. Accumulations of alpha-synuclein were sarkosyl-insoluble and colocalized with ubiquitin and p62, and were accompanied by an inflammatory response resulting in astrocytic gliosis and microgliosis. Surprisingly, inoculation of alpha-synuclein fibrils into the tongue was less effective in causing disease with only one of five injected animals showing alpha-synuclein pathology after 285 days. Our findings show that inoculation via the intraglossal route and more so via the intraperitoneal route is suitable to induce neurologic illness with relevant hallmarks of synucleinopathies in Tg(M83+/-:Gfap-luc+/-) mice. This provides a new model for studying prion-like pathogenesis induced by alpha-synuclein prionoids in greater detail.

Peripheral injection of alpha-synuclein fibrils into the peritoneum or tongue of Tg(M83+/-:Gfap-luc+/-) mice, which express human alpha-synuclein with the familial A53T mutation and firefly luciferase, can induce neuropathology, including neuroinflammation, in their central nervous system.

Imagem de bioluminescência de Neuroinflammation em Ratinhos Transgénicos Após inoculação periférica de alfa-sinucleína fibrilas

To study the prion-like behavior of misfolded alpha-synuclein, mouse models are needed that allow fast and simple transmission of alpha-synuclein ...

Monitoring Cell-to-cell Transmission of Prion-like Protein Aggregates in Drosophila Melanogaster

Protein aggregation is a central feature of most neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), Huntington&#39;s disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Protein aggregates are closely associated with neuropathology in these diseases, although the exact mechanism by which aberrant protein aggregation disrupts normal cellular homeostasis is not known. Emerging data provide strong support for the hypothesis that pathogenic aggregates in AD, PD, HD, and ALS have many similarities to prions, which are protein-only infectious agents responsible for the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Prions self-replicate by templating the conversion of natively-folded versions of the same protein, causing spread of the aggregation phenotype. How prions and prion-like proteins in AD, PD, HD, and ALS move from one cell to another is currently an area of intense investigation. Here, a Drosophila melanogaster model that permits monitoring of prion-like, cell-to-cell transmission of mutant huntingtin (Htt) aggregates associated with HD is described. This model takes advantage of powerful tools for manipulating transgene expression in many different Drosophila tissues and utilizes a fluorescently-tagged cytoplasmic protein to directly report prion-like transfer of mutant Htt aggregates. Importantly, the approach we describe here can be used to identify novel genes and pathways that mediate spreading of protein aggregates between diverse cell types in vivo. Information gained from these studies will expand the limited understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms that underlie neurodegenerative diseases and reveal new opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Monitoring Cell-to-cell Transmission of Prion-like Protein Aggregates in Drosophila Melanogaster

Accumulating evidence supports the idea that pathogenic protein aggregates associated with neurodegenerative diseases spread between cells with prion-like properties. Here, we describe a method that enables visualization of cell-to-cell spreading of prion-like aggregates in the model organism, Drosophila melanogaster.

Monitoramento de transmissão de celular para celular da proteína príon como agregados em Drosophila Melanogaster.

Protein aggregation is a central feature of most neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), ...

Quantifying Microglia Morphology from Photomicrographs of Immunohistochemistry Prepared Tissue Using ImageJ

Microglia are brain phagocytes that participate in brain homeostasis and continuously survey their environment for dysfunction, injury, and disease. As the first responders, microglia have important functions to mitigate neuron and glia dysfunction, and in this process, they undergo a broad range of morphologic changes. Microglia morphologies can be categorized descriptively or, alternatively, can be quantified as a continuous variable for parameters such as cell ramification, complexity, and shape. While methods for quantifying microglia are applied to single cells, few techniques apply to multiple microglia in an entire photomicrograph. The purpose of this method is to quantify multiple and single cells using readily available ImageJ protocols. This protocol is a summary of the steps and ImageJ plugins recommended to convert fluorescence and bright-field photomicrographs into representative binary and skeletonized images and to analyze them using software plugins AnalyzeSkeleton (2D/3D) and FracLac for morphology data collection. The outputs of these plugins summarize cell morphology in terms of process endpoints, junctions, and length as well as complexity, cell shape, and size descriptors. The skeleton analysis protocol described herein is well suited for a regional analysis of multiple microglia within an entire photomicrograph or region of interest (ROI) whereas FracLac provides a complementary individual cell analysis. Combined, the protocol provides an objective, sensitive, and comprehensive assessment tool that can be used to stratify between diverse microglia morphologies present in the healthy and injured brain.

Microglia are brain immune cells that survey and react to altered brain physiology through morphologic changes which may be evaluated quantitatively. This protocol outlines an ImageJ based analysis protocol to represent microglia morphology as continuous data according to metrics such as cell ramification, complexity, and shape.

Quantificar a Microglia morfologia de fotomicrografias de imuno-histoquímica preparado tecido usando o ImageJ

Microglia are brain phagocytes that participate in brain homeostasis and continuously survey their environment for dysfunction, injury, and disease. As ...

Quantitative Autoradiographic Method for Determination of Regional Rates of Cerebral Protein Synthesis In Vivo

Protein synthesis is required for development and maintenance of neuronal function and is involved in adaptive changes in the nervous system. Moreover, it is thought that dysregulation of protein synthesis in the nervous system may be a core phenotype in some developmental disorders. Accurate measurement of rates of cerebral protein synthesis in animal models is important for understanding these disorders. The method that we have developed was designed to be applied to the study of awake, behaving animals. It is a quantitative autoradiographic method, so it can yield rates in all regions of the brain simultaneously. The method is based on the use of a tracer amino acid, L-[1-14C]-leucine, and a kinetic model of the behavior of L-leucine in the brain. We chose L-[1-14C]-leucine as the tracer because it does not lead to extraneous labeled metabolic products. It is either incorporated into protein or rapidly metabolized to yield 14CO2 which is diluted in a large pool of unlabeled CO2 in the brain. The method and the model also allow for the contribution of unlabeled leucine derived from tissue proteolysis to the tissue precursor pool for protein synthesis. The method has the spatial resolution to determine protein synthesis rates in cell and neuropil layers, as well as hypothalamic and cranial nerve nuclei. To obtain reliable and reproducible quantitative data, it is important to adhere to procedural details. Here we present the detailed procedures of the quantitative autoradiographic L-[1-14C]-leucine method for the determination of regional rates of protein synthesis in vivo.

Protein synthesis is&#160;a critical biological process for cells. In brain, it is required for adaptive changes. Measurement of rates of protein synthesis in the intact brain requires careful methodological considerations. Here we present the L-[1-14C]-leucine quantitative autoradiographic method for determination of regional rates of cerebral protein synthesis in vivo.

Método autoradiográfico quantitativo para determinação das taxas regionais de síntese protéica cerebral in vivo

Protein synthesis is required for development and maintenance of neuronal function and is involved in adaptive changes in the nervous system. Moreover, it ...