We would like to acknowledge Ms. Prachi Shah for helping us initially with the protocol optimization. We would like to thank Dr. Manoj Garg for providing the A2780 ovarian cancer cell line. EK is supported by a Research Grant from the Department of Biotechnology (No. BT/RLF/Re-entry/06/2015), Department of Science and Technology (ECR/2018/002117), and NMIMS Seed Grant (IO 401405).

NOTE: See the Table of Materials for details about all reagents used in the protocol below. Table 1 enlists lab-made reagents along with optimized volumes and Table 2 shows working concentrations of commercially available reagents.
1. Cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Maintain cells whose telomere length is to be measured (used here were A2780 cells, which is an ovarian adenocarcinoma cell line) in Dulbecco&#39;s modified eagle medium (DMEM) complete medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), streptomycin, penicillin, and amphotericin B in a 6 cm Petri dish. Incubate at 37 &#176;C in a humidified and controlled environment containing 5% carbon dioxide until the cells are 80%-100% confluent.</li>
	<li>Remove the media and wash with 5 mL of 1x phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).</li>
	<li>Treat the cells with 1 mL of trypsin-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) for detaching the cells by incubating at 37 &#176;C for 3-5 min.</li>
	<li>Add 2 mL of DMEM complete media to inactivate the trypsin and collect the cells in a centrifugation tube.</li>
	<li>Pellet the cells at 2,348 &#215; g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the pellet with 1x PBS and centrifuge at 2,348 &#215; g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Store the pellet at -80 &#176;C until further use. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The cell count can vary depending on the cell line. We obtained approximately 2.5 &#215; 106 cells in the case of the A2780 cell line, which is used in further steps.</li>
</ol>
2. Genomic DNA isolation
<ol>
	<li>Add 500 &#181;L of lysis buffer (10 mM tris-Cl, pH 8.0; 25 mM EDTA, pH 8.0; 100 mM NaCl; 0.5% w/v sodium dodecyl sulphate) to the cell pellet and gently mix using a cut tip (with an opening diameter of a minimum 2 mm). Add 20 &#181;g/mL freshly prepared RNase A and mix gently by inversion.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 37 &#176;C for 30 min and occasionally invert the tube during incubation.</li>
	<li>Add proteinase K to a final concentration of 100 &#181;g/mL and mix gently by inversion 10 times. Incubate at 55 &#176;C for 2 h. Invert the tube at regular intervals (every 10 min) during incubation.</li>
	<li>Add 500 &#181;L of phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol reagent (25:24:1) and mix gently by inversion 20 times. Centrifuge at 9,391 &#215; g for 15 min at room temperature (around 25 &#176;C). 
	NOTE: Figure 1A shows the three layers obtained after centrifugation.</li>
	<li>Remove the viscous upper aqueous layer out of the three layers visible, place into a fresh tube using a cut tip, and add an equal amount of chloroform. Mix by gentle inversion 20 times.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tubes at 9,391 &#215; g for 15 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Collect the aqueous layer and add an appropriate amount of 5 M NaCl so that the final concentration of NaCl is 0.2 M.</li>
	<li>Add two volumes of 100% ethanol. Mix by gentle inversion 20-25 times. Centrifuge at 15,871 &#215; g for 5 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the supernatant and add 500 &#181;L of 70% ethanol to wash the pellet. Centrifuge at 15,871 &#215; g for 5 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the supernatant, air-dry the pellet for a few minutes, and add 50 &#181;L of sterile nuclease-free water. Allow the DNA to rehydrate for 1-2 days at room temperature. Mix by pipetting, using the cut tip.</li>
	<li>Measure the concentration of DNA using ultraviolet (UV)-spectrophotometry. Redilute the samples, if necessary, using sterile nuclease-free water to get a minimum concentration of 300-500 ng/&#181;L.</li>
	<li>Check for the integrity of the DNA by running it on a 1% agarose gel (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Store the diluted DNA at -20 &#176;C until further use.</li>
</ol>
3. Digestion of genomic DNA
<ol>
	<li>Prepare an enzyme mixture of Rsa1 (20 U) and Hinf1 (20 U) and add 2 &#181;L of restriction digestion buffer per reaction.</li>
	<li>Take an appropriate volume of genomic DNA such that the total amount of DNA is 1.5 &#181;g. Make up the volume with sterile nuclease-free water, so that the total volume after the enzyme addition is 20 &#181;L.</li>
	<li>Mix well by tapping, followed by a pulse spin.</li>
	<li>Incubate the mixture at 37 &#176;C for 2 h.</li>
</ol>
4. Agarose gel electrophoresis
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 10 cm &#215; 15 cm 0.8% agarose gel in 1x tris acetate EDTA (TAE) buffer using high-grade agarose.</li>
	<li>Add 5 &#181;L of loading dye to each digested genomic DNA sample, thus making the final volume 25 &#181;L, and load the samples onto the gel.</li>
	<li>Prepare a molecular marker mix by using 1 &#181;L of molecular marker (ladder), 3 &#181;L of sterile nuclease-free water, and 1 &#181;L of 5x loading dye.</li>
	<li>Load 5 &#181;L of molecular marker mix on both sides of the genomic DNA digested samples if there are a higher number of samples (~10), or only on one side if there are less than or equal to five samples.</li>
	<li>Run the gel at 5 V/cm for 6 h. Once the run is complete, make a notch on one corner of the gel to mark the loading order.</li>
	<li>Submerge the gel in 0.25 M HCl for 10 min at room temperature with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Rinse the gel twice with distilled water.</li>
	<li>Denature the DNA by submerging the gel in a solution of 0.5 M NaOH and 1.5 M NaCl twice for 15 min each at room temperature with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Rinse the gel twice with distilled water.</li>
	<li>Neutralize the DNA by submerging the gel in a solution of 0.5 M tris-HCl and 3 M NaCl (pH 7.5) twice for 15 min at room temperature with gentle agitation.</li>
</ol>
5. Southern blotting
<ol>
	<li>Cut a nylon membrane of 10 cm &#215; 12 cm in size and make a notch in the same position as the gel.</li>
	<li>Activate the membrane by dipping in distilled water followed by 20x sodium saline citrate (SSC) buffer (see Table 1).</li>
	<li>Set up the transfer.
	<ol>
		<li>Take a clean glass tray and place another tray in it in an inverted position. Create a wick using regular filter paper such that the ends are touching the base of the outer tray.</li>
		<li>Place the gel on top of the filter paper. Gently place the activated nylon membrane over the gel, with the notches overlapping, and remove any air bubbles by rolling over a glass rod.</li>
		<li>Place a 2 cm heap of 9.5 cm &#215; 11.5 cm cellulose filter paper, followed by a 6 cm heap of regular filter paper of the same dimensions. Place a weight atop this setup such that there is equal weight distribution below. Fill the outer tray with 20x SSC buffer (see Figure 2).</li>
		<li>Leave the setup for overnight transfer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After the Southern transfer, fix the transferred DNA onto the membrane by UV crosslinking on a UV transilluminator or UV crosslinker. Use a 302 nm 8 W lamp for 5 min, or a 254 nm 8 W lamp for 2 min, which corresponds to approximately 120 mJ. Ensure that the membrane side on which the DNA is transferred faces the lamp.</li>
	<li>Wash the membrane twice with 25 mL of 2x SSC buffer.</li>
	<li>Pause the protocol, if required, by completely drying the blot and storing it at 2-8 &#176;C after loosely wrapping in foil, till further processing.</li>
</ol>
6. Hybridization and chemiluminescence detection
<ol>
	<li>Prewarm the prehybridization buffer to 42 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: The following steps include volumes of solutions/buffers to be used per 100 cm2 of blot.</li>
	<li>Incubate the membrane in 10 mL of prehybridization buffer for 1 h at 42 &#176;C with gentle agitation for prehybridization.</li>
	<li>Add 0.5 &#181;L of telomere probe per 5 mL of prewarmed prehybridization buffer to make the hybridization solution.</li>
	<li>Incubate the blot in 10 mL of hybridization solution at 42 &#176;C for 3 h with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Wash the blot with stringent buffer 1 (Table 1) twice for 10 min (25 mL each) at room temperature with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Prewarm stringent buffer 2 (Table 1) for 30 min at 50 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Wash the blot with stringent buffer 2 twice for 15 min (25 mL each) at 50 &#176;C with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Rinse with 15 mL of wash buffer for 5 min with gentle agitation at RT.</li>
	<li>Incubate the membrane in 10 mL of freshly prepared 1x blocking solution for 30 min at room temperature with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Incubate the membrane in 10 mL of anti-digioxigenin conjugated with alkaline phosphatase working solution (see Table 2) for 30 min at RT with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Wash the blot twice with wash buffer at room temperature for 15 min with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Incubate in 10 mL of detection buffer for 5 min at RT with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Remove the excess detection buffer and keep the membrane with the DNA facing upward on a hybridization bag or acetate sheet. Add ~1-1.5 mL of substrate solution dropwise onto the membrane, immediately place another sheet on it, and incubate for 5 min at RT.</li>
	<li>Squeeze out the excess substrate solution for imaging.</li>
	<li>Image the blot for approximately 20 min in a gel documentation imaging system, collecting multiple images at different time points. Select unsaturated images for further analysis. 
	&#8203;NOTE: In case the signal is weak, imaging can be carried out for a longer period of time.</li>
</ol>
7. Analysis
<ol>
	<li>After obtaining the image files, export them for publication in .tif format at the highest resolution possible (600 dpi in this case).</li>
	<li>Install Telotool software. This requires a specific version (R2012a) of MATLAB (freely available) to run.</li>
	<li>Open the software and click on the Load Image File button in the top right.</li>
	<li>After the image has been loaded, click Invert Image, so that the image background is black and the smears/bands are white.</li>
	<li>Crop the image with the top corners starting from the wells. After the crop selection has been made, right-click inside it and select Crop Image.</li>
	<li>After the image has been cropped, click on Calculate Lanes and allow lane detection to occur automatically.</li>
	<li>If the lanes have not been detected properly, for example, if certain lanes have not been detected at all, or if extra or partial lanes have been detected, perform lane adjustment as described below.
	<ol>
		<li>Click on Adjust Lanes and in the pop-up window that opens, add and/or adjust lanes as needed, and click on Apply and Close.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After adjusting the lanes, make sure that a red dot is seen on each of the lanes and adjust the ladders using the Ladder Fit button, making sure that the number of peaks in both the ladder lanes are in the same position. Remove any extraneous peaks using the Delete Extremum button.</li>
	<li>After the ladders have been adjusted, select Lane Profiles, click on Ladder Fit, and select Polynomial Fit.</li>
	<li>Click on Trendline, as recommended by the software, and then select Corrected in the next option.</li>
	<li>Click on Get Results to display the results as a table, in which the Mean TRF row is the telomere length measurement of the respective lane samples.</li>
	<li>Click on Save all to store the results in the form of a spreadsheet.</li>
</ol>

Quantifying Telomere Length Using Non-Radioactive Chemiluminescence Detection

<ol>
	<li>Greider, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+length+regulation.">Telomere length regulation.</a> Annual Review of Biochemistry. 65, 337-365 (1996).</li><li>Valdes, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Obesity,+cigarette+smoking,+and+telomere+length+in+women.">Obesity, cigarette smoking, and telomere length in women.</a> Lancet. 366 (9486), 662-664 (2005).</li><li>Allsopp, R. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+length+predicts+replicative+capacity+of+human+fibroblasts.">Telomere length predicts replicative capacity of human fibroblasts.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 89 (21), 10114-10118 (1992).</li><li>Epel, E. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accelerated+telomere+shortening+in+response+to+life+stress.">Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (49), 17312-17315 (2004).</li><li>Canela, A., Vera, E., Klatt, P., Blasco, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+telomere+length+quantification+by+FISH+and+its+application+to+human+population+studies.">High-throughput telomere length quantification by FISH and its application to human population studies.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (13), 5300-5305 (2007).</li><li>R&#233;v&#233;sz, D., Milaneschi, Y., Verhoeven, J. E., Penninx, B. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+length+as+a+marker+of+cellular+aging+is+associated+with+prevalence+and+progression+of+metabolic+syndrome.">Telomere length as a marker of cellular aging is associated with prevalence and progression of metabolic syndrome.</a> The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 99 (12), 4607-4615 (2014).</li><li>Rizvi, S., Raza, S. T., Mahdi, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+length+variations+in+aging+and+age-related+diseases.">Telomere length variations in aging and age-related diseases.</a> Current Aging Science. 7 (3), 161-167 (2014).</li><li>Mender, I., Shay, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+restriction+fragment+(TRF)+analysis.">Telomere restriction fragment (TRF) analysis.</a> Bio-Protocol. 5 (22), e1658 (2015).</li><li>Zhu, Y., Liu, X., Ding, X., Wang, F., Geng, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+and+its+role+in+the+aging+pathways:+telomere+shortening,+cell+senescence+and+mitochondria+dysfunction.">Telomere and its role in the aging pathways: telomere shortening, cell senescence and mitochondria dysfunction.</a> Biogerontology. 20 (1), 1-16 (2019).</li><li>G&#246;hring, J., Fulcher, N., Jacak, J., Riha, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TeloTool:+a+new+tool+for+telomere+length+measurement+from+terminal+restriction+fragment+analysis+with+improved+probe+intensity+correction.">TeloTool: a new tool for telomere length measurement from terminal restriction fragment analysis with improved probe intensity correction.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 42 (3), 21 (2014).</li><li>Jenkins, F. J., Kerr, C. M., Fouquerel, E., Bovbjerg, D. H., Opresko, P. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modified+terminal+restriction+fragment+analysis+for+quantifying+telomere+length+using+in-gel+hybridization.">Modified terminal restriction fragment analysis for quantifying telomere length using in-gel hybridization.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (125), e56001 (2017).</li><li>Fojtov&#225;, M., Fajkus, P., Sov&#225;kov&#225;, P. P., Fajkus, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Terminal+restriction+fragments+(TRF)+method+to+analyze+telomere+lengths.">Terminal restriction fragments (TRF) method to analyze telomere lengths.</a> Bio-protocol. 5 (23), e1671 (2015).</li><li>Kimura, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+telomere+length+by+the+Southern+blot+analysis+of+terminal+restriction+fragment+lengths.">Measurement of telomere length by the Southern blot analysis of terminal restriction fragment lengths.</a> Nature Protocols. 5 (9), 1596-1607 (2010).</li><li>Trigodet, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+molecular+weight+DNA+extraction+strategies+for+long-read+sequencing+of+complex+metagenomes.">High molecular weight DNA extraction strategies for long-read sequencing of complex metagenomes.</a> Molecular Ecology Resources. 22 (5), 1786-1802 (2022).</li><li>Lai, T. P., Wright, W. E., Shay, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+telomere+length+measurement+methods.">Comparison of telomere length measurement methods.</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 373 (1741), 20160451 (2018).</li><li>Mochida, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+size+and+telomerase+activity+in+Epstein-Barr+virus+(EBV)-positive+and+EBV-negative+Burkitt's+lymphoma+cell+lines.">Telomere size and telomerase activity in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive and EBV-negative Burkitt's lymphoma cell lines.</a> Archives of Virology. 150 (10), 2139-2150 (2005).</li><li>Gupta, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replicative+senescence,+telomere+shortening+and+cell+proliferation+rate+in+Gaddi+goat's+skin+fibroblast+cell+line.">Replicative senescence, telomere shortening and cell proliferation rate in Gaddi goat's skin fibroblast cell line.</a> Cell Biology International. 31 (10), 1257-1264 (2007).</li><li>Michaeli, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+telomere+length+correlates+with+extended+female+fertility.">Leukocyte telomere length correlates with extended female fertility.</a> Cells. 11 (3), 513 (2022).</li><li>Lesmana, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Continuous+reference+intervals+for+leukocyte+telomere+length+in+children:+the+method+matters.">Continuous reference intervals for leukocyte telomere length in children: the method matters.</a> Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 59 (7), 1279-1288 (2021).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

We describe a detailed procedure for a non-radioactive, chemiluminescence-based method for telomere length measurement using Southern blotting. The protocol has been tested to allow the judicious use of several reagents with no compromise on the quality of results. The prehybridization and hybridization buffer can be reused up to five times. Enzyme concentration can vary between 10-20 U per 1.5-2 &#181;g of genomic DNA without affecting the results. Several other kit components, such as the DIG-labeled molecular weight marker and hybridization probe, can be used at lower concentrations than recommended. The optimized volumes are indicated in Table 2. We have tested them at half the recommended volumes/concentrations and found optimal performance. Following these steps reduces the cost per sample tremendously, thus enabling researchers to measure telomere length using this method at a larger scale. 
There are several published TRF protocols. We have optimized the commercially available kit protocol to make it cost-effective. This protocol is different from some of the published protocols as it does not use radioactivity11,12. It is also relatively simple, as it uses the kit components rather than preparing in-house reagents, particularly the telomere probe13.
If the final image is patchy, then the membrane has partially dried during incubation. To resolve this, one should either increase the solution volume or agitate at a higher speed. If there are no smears visible on the blot, then there might have been a problem during the Southern transfer. In addition, there could have been a problem in the DNA quantity or quality.
There are some limitations to this method. First, genomic DNA extraction and quantification takes upward of 4 days based on the source of the DNA14. Higher molecular weight DNA takes a longer time to rehydrate and homogenize, making quantification and accurate pipetting difficult. Second, the TRF protocol is long (2 days minimum) and requires skilled lab workers to implement. It is also an expensive method due to the reagents and the quantities required. The TRF protocol also measures the average telomere length in each sample, as opposed to the shortest telomere length that TESLA measures or the telomere length per cell that flow cytometry-based methods provide15. Another limitation of TRF analysis using the enzymes used here is an overestimation of telomere length, as these enzymes do not have a restriction site in the sub-telomeric regions15. 
However, despite the limitations, there are reasons why this method is still considered the gold standard of telomere length measurement. Telomere lengths are rendered accurately in absolute values-in kilobase pairs (kbp).
This method can be used to measure the average telomere length in a variety of cell types, from cell lines16,17 to buffy coat pellets18,19. This makes it a robust method to use in several types of research studies. It can also be used in large-scale epidemiological studies as well as in studies where cell-based therapeutics are being developed.

Telomeres are the repetitive DNA sequences present at the end of chromosomes. They have tandem repeats of TTAGGG and maintain genome integrity by protecting the chromosome from both fraying and the end replication problem, which means that part of the 3&#39; overhang is unable to be replicated by DNA polymerase1,2. Short telomeres lead to chromosomal abnormalities in cells, due to which cells become permanently arrested in a stage called replicative senescence3. Short telomeres also cause a host of other problems, such as mitochondria dysfunction4,5 and cell dysfunction.
DNA telomeric repeats are lost as and when the cell divides, with an average loss of 25 to 200 bp per year6, resulting in cellular senescence after a certain number of divisions6. Aging is associated with a higher frequency of comorbidities, which is marked by a shortening in telomere length7. Telomere restriction fragment (TRF) analysis, as described by Mender, is a very expensive method8. Because of this, it is not implemented while quantifying telomere length in most studies.
Presently, the majority of epidemiological studies employ quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)-based measurements of telomere length. However, the qPCR-based method is a relative measurement method, as it measures the ratio between telomeres and single-copy gene amplification products, and not absolute telomere length. Telomere length measurement using the TRF protocol is the gold standard method, as it can measure telomere length distribution in the sample and measurements can be expressed in absolute values in kilobases (kb). However, its use is limited because it is cumbersome, labor-intensive, and costly. Here, we present an optimized protocol for telomere length measurement using chemiluminescence-based TRFs.
TRF analysis includes seven major steps: 1) culturing of cells for genomic DNA extraction, 2) genomic DNA extraction using the phenol:chloroform:isoamylalcohol (P:C:I) method, 3) restriction digestion of genomic DNA, 4) agarose gel electrophoresis, 5) Southern blotting of the restriction digestion DNA fragment, 6) hybridization and detection via chemiluminescence-the immobilized telomere probe is visualized by a highly sensitive chemiluminescent substrate for alkaline phosphatase, disodium 2-chloro-5-(4-methoxyspiro[1,2-dioxetane-3,2&#8242;-(5-chlorotricyclo[3.3.1.13.7]decan])-4-yl]-1-phenyl phosphate (CDP-Star)-and 7) analysis for obtaining mean telomere length and range information from these telomeric smears.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Line</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A2780 (Ovarian adenocarcinoma cell line)</td>
			<td>Received as a gift</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChemiDoc XRS+ (for imaging and UV cross linking)</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>Universal hood II (721BR14277)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop (Epoch 2)</td>
			<td>Biotek</td>
			<td>EPOCH2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TeloTool</td>
			<td>Version 1.3</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>Molychem</td>
			<td>64-19-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>MP</td>
			<td>180720</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Gibco, ThermoFisher Scientific, USA</td>
			<td>15240062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM&#160;</td>
			<td>HyClone, Cytiva, USA</td>
			<td>SH30243.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid&#160;</td>
			<td>Molychem</td>
			<td>6381-92-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HI FBS</td>
			<td>Gibco, ThermoFisher Scientific, USA</td>
			<td>10270106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Molychem</td>
			<td>76-47-01-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Molychem</td>
			<td>7647-14-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Molychem</td>
			<td>1310-73-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon membrane</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>11209299001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin</td>
			<td>Gibco, ThermoFisher Scientific, USA</td>
			<td>15240062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate</td>
			<td>Affymetrix</td>
			<td>151-21-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco, ThermoFisher Scientific, USA</td>
			<td>15240062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>77-86-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris HCl</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>1185-53-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman paper</td>
			<td>GE healthcare lifesciences</td>
			<td>1001-917</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 kb ladder</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>N3232S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20x SSC</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15557-036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti DIG AP</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blocking solution 10x</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cutsmart Buffer</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>B6004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Detection buffer 10x</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dig easy hyb</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digestion Buffer</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hinf 1</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hinf 1 (alternative to kit)</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>R0155T</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Loading Dye</td>
			<td>BIOLABS</td>
			<td>N3231S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Maleic acid buffer 10x</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular marker</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Probe</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rsa 1</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rsa 1 (alternative to kit)</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>R0167L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Substrate</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wash buffer</td>
			<td>Telo TAGGG Telomere Length Assay kit</td>
			<td>12209136001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optimization of performance parameters of the taggg telomere length assay

Telomeres are repetitive sequences which are present at chromosomal ends; their shortening is a characteristic feature of human somatic cells. Shortening occurs due to a problem with end replication and the absence of the telomerase enzyme, which is responsible for maintaining telomere length. Interestingly, telomeres also shorten in response to various internal physiological processes, like oxidative stress and inflammation, which may be impacted due to extracellular agents like pollutants, infectious agents, nutrients, or radiation. Thus, telomere length serves as an excellent biomarker of aging and various physiological health parameters. The TAGGG telomere length assay kit is used to quantify average telomere lengths using the telomere restriction fragment (TRF) assay and is highly reproducible. However, it is an expensive method, and because of this, it is not employed routinely for large sample numbers. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for an optimized and cost-effective measurement of telomere length using Southern blots or TRF analysis and non-radioactive chemiluminescence-based detection.

The extracted genomic DNA (gDNA), which was run on a 1% agarose gel, showed good integrity, as shown in Figure 1B, indicating that the sample could be used for further downstream processing of TRFs. The TRF assay was then carried out by the modifying the volumes of solutions required at each step (see Table 1 and Table 2). The TRF signal was clearly visible (Figure 3). Thus, by modifying the solution volumes and concentrations, more samples could be processed without any negative effect on the results, and the telomere length could be determined successfully using freely available software such as Telotool10.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Isolation and quality check of genomic DNA. (A) Three distinct separation phases obtained upon centrifugation after adding phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol. The upper aqueous layer contains the gDNA, the interphase contains the proteins, and the lower, organic phase contains the degraded RNA, cell debris, and lipids. (B) An image of a 1% agarose gel showing intact undigested gDNA. Lane 1 shows a 1 kb ladder and lane 2 shows undigested gDNA of the cancer cell line A2780. Abbreviation: gDNA = genomic DNA. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Illustration of Southern blotting transfer setup. Representative diagram showing the system assembly for the transfer of telomere repeat smears from the gel to the nylon membrane by capillary action. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Chemiluminescence detection of TRFs post-Southern blotting and hybridization. Blot showing a range of telomeric repeats as a smear in lane 2. Lane 1 shows a molecular marker, with the molecular weights (kb) of bands indicated on left side. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Table 1: List of reagents used in this protocol. The table contains reagents prepared in the lab along with their storage details, the recommended usage of the TAGGG telomere length assay kit reagents, and their modified usage volumes, as per the optimization in this protocol. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288_Table 1.xlsx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
Table 2: List of commercially available reagents with modified usage instructions. The table contains commercially available reagents along with different dilutions, their storage details, and their recommended usage by the TAGGG telomere length assay kit and modified usage volumes, as per the optimization in this protocol. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65288/65288_Table 2.xlsx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization of Performance Parameters of the TAGGG Telomere Length Assay at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Optimization of Performance Parameters of the TAGGG Telomere Length Assay  

Here, we describe in detail the protocol for quantifying telomere length using non-radioactive chemiluminescent detection, with a focus on the optimization of various performance parameters of the TAGGG telomere length assay kit, such as buffer quantities and probe concentrations.

Optimization of Performance Parameters of the TAGGG Telomere Length Assay

Telomeres are repetitive sequences which are present at chromosomal ends; their shortening is a characteristic feature of human somatic cells. Shortening ...

optimization-performance-parameters-taggg-telomere-length

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

2.4K Views.  SVKM's NMIMS Deemed-to-be-University. Here, we describe in detail the protocol for quantifying telomere length using non-radioactive chemiluminescent detection, with a focus on the optimization of various performance parameters of the TAGGG telomere length assay kit, such as buffer quantities and probe concentrations. 

Video: Author Spotlight: Optimization of Performance Parameters of the TAGGG Telomere Length Assay  

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

Inspired by the success of previous cancer nanomedicines in the clinic, researchers have generated a large number of novel formulations in the past decade. However, only a small number of nanomedicines have been approved for clinical use, whereas the majority of nanomedicines under clinical development have produced disappointing results. One major obstacle to the successful clinical translation of new cancer nanomedicines is the lack of an accurate understanding of their in vivo performance. This article features a rigorous procedure to characterize the in vivo behavior of nanomedicines in tumor-bearing mice at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels via the integration of positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT), radioactivity quantification methods, flow cytometry, and fluorescence microscopy. Using this approach, researchers can accurately evaluate novel nanoscale formulations in relevant mouse models of cancer. These protocols may have the ability to identify the most promising cancer nanomedicines with high translational potential or to aid in the optimization of cancer nanomedicines for future translation.

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vivo Performance of Cancer Nanomedicines

The poor understanding of the in vivo performance of nanomedicines stymies their clinical translation. Procedures to evaluate the in vivo behavior of cancer nanomedicines at systemic, tissue, single-cell, and subcellular levels in tumor-bearing immunocompetent mice are described here. This approach may help researchers to identify promising cancer nanomedicines for clinical translation.

Inspired by the success of previous cancer nanomedicines in the clinic, researchers have generated a large number of novel formulations in the past ...

Modified Terminal Restriction Fragment Analysis for Quantifying Telomere Length Using In-gel Hybridization

There are several different techniques for measuring telomere length, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. The traditional approach, Telomere Restriction Fragment (TRF) analysis, utilizes a DNA hybridization technique whereby genomic DNA samples are digested with restriction enzymes, leaving behind telomere DNA repeats and some sub-telomeric DNA. These are separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to a filter membrane and hybridized to oligonucleotide probes tagged with either chemiluminescence or radioactivity to visualize telomere restriction fragments. This approach, while requiring a larger quantity of DNA than other techniques such as PCR, can measure the telomere length distribution of a population of cells and allows measurement expressed in absolute kilobases. This manuscript demonstrates a modified DNA hybridization procedure for determining telomere length. Genomic DNA is first digested with restriction enzymes (that do not cut telomeres) and separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. The gel is then dried and the DNA is denatured and hybridized in situ to a radiolabeled oligonucleotide probe. This in situ hybridization avoids loss of telomere DNA and improves signal intensity. Following hybridization, the gels are imaged utilizing phosphor screens and the telomere length is quantified using a graphing program. This procedure was developed by the laboratories of Drs. Woodring Wright and Jerry Shay at the University of Texas Southwestern1,2. Here, we present a detailed description of this procedure, with some modifications.

In this article, a detailed protocol for quantifying telomere length using a modified terminal restriction fragment analysis is discussed that provides fast and efficient direct measurement of telomere length. This technique can be applied to a variety of cell sources of DNA for quantifying telomere length.

There are several different techniques for measuring telomere length, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. The traditional approach, Telomere ...

Evaluation of the Cell Invasion and Migration Process: A Comparison of the Video Microscope-based Scratch Wound Assay and the Boyden Chamber Assay

The invasion and migration abilities of tumor cells are main contributors to cancer progression and recurrence. Many studies have explored the migration and invasion abilities to understand how cancer cells disseminate, with the aim of developing new treatment strategies. Analysis of the cellular and molecular basis of these abilities has led to the characterization of cell mobility and the physicochemical properties of the cytoskeleton and cellular microenvironment. For many years, the Boyden chamber assay and the scratch wound assay have been the standard techniques to study cell invasion and migration. However, these two techniques have limitations. The Boyden chamber assay is difficult and time consuming, and the scratch wound assay has low reproducibility. Development of modern technologies, especially in microscopy, has increased the reproducibility of the scratch wound assay. Using powerful analysis systems, an &#34;in-incubator&#34; video microscope can be used to provide automatic and real-time analysis of cell migration and invasion. The aim of this paper is to report and compare the two assays used to study cell invasion and migration: the Boyden chamber assay and an optimized in vitro video microscope-based scratch wound assay.

This study reports two different methods for the analysis of cell invasion and migration: the Boyden chamber assay and the in vitro video microscope-based wound-healing assay. The protocols for these two experiments are described, and their benefits and disadvantages are compared.

The invasion and migration abilities of tumor cells are main contributors to cancer progression and recurrence. Many studies have explored the migration ...

Using the Dot Assay to Analyze Migration of Cell Sheets

Although complex organisms appear static, their tissues are under a continuous turnover. As cells age, die, and are replaced by new cells, cells move within tissues in a tightly orchestrated manner. During tumor development, this equilibrium is disturbed, and tumor cells leave the epithelium of origin to invade the local microenvironment, to travel to distant sites, and to ultimately form metastatic tumors at distant sites. The dot assay is a simple, two-dimensional unconstrained migration assay, to assess the net movement of cell sheets into a cell-free area, and to analyze parameters of cell migration using time-lapse imaging. Here, the dot assay is demonstrated using a human invasive, lung colony forming breast cancer cell line, MCF10CA1a, to analyze the cells' migratory response to epidermal growth factor (EGF), which is known to increase malignant potential of breast cancer cells and to alter the migratory phenotype of cells.

Cell migration is essential for development, tissue maintenance and repair, and tumorigenesis, and is regulated by growth factors, chemokines, and cytokines. This protocol describes the dot assay, a two-dimensional, unconstrained migration assay to assess the migratory phenotype of attached, cohesive cell sheets in response to microenvironmental cues.

Although complex organisms appear static, their tissues are under a continuous turnover. As cells age, die, and are replaced by new cells, cells move ...

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vitro Performance of the Putative Hemangioblastoma Neovascularization Using the Spheroid Sprouting Assay

The inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene plays a crucial role in the development of hemangioblastomas (HBs) within the human central nervous system (CNS). However, both the cytological origin and the evolutionary process of HBs (including neovascularization) remain controversial, and anti-angiogenesis for VHL-HBs, based on classic HB angiogenesis, have produced disappointing results in clinical trials. One major obstacle to the successful clinical translation of anti-vascular treatment is the lack of a thorough understanding of neovascularization in this vascular tumor. In this article, we present a comprehensive procedure to evaluate in vitro whether classic tumor angiogenesis exists in HBs, as well as its role in HBs. With this procedure, researchers can accurately understand the complexity of HB neovascularization and identify the function of this common form of angiogenesis in HBs. These protocols can be used to evaluate the most promising anti-vascular therapy for tumors, which has high translational potential either for tumors treatment or for aiding in the optimization of the anti-angiogenic treatment for HBs in future translations. The results highlight the complexity of HB neovascularization and suggest that this common form angiogenesis is only a complementary mechanism in HB neovascularization.

A Comprehensive Procedure to Evaluate the In Vitro Performance of the Putative Hemangioblastoma Neovascularization Using the Spheroid Sprouting Assay

This paper presents a comprehensive procedure to evaluate in vitro whether classic tumor angiogenesis exists in hemangioblastomas (HBs) and its role in HBs. The results highlight the complexity of HB-neovascularization and suggest that this common form of angiogenesis is only a complementary mechanism in the HB-neovascularization.

The inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene plays a crucial role in the development of hemangioblastomas (HBs) within the human ...

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful immunotherapies. Several studies have indicated that tumor infiltrating myeloid cells (e.g., myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs)) suppress cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment, and that targeting these regulatory myeloid cells can improve immunotherapies. Here, we present an in vitro assay system to evaluate immune suppressive effects of monocytic-MDSCs and TAMs on the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells. To this end, we first cultured na&#239;ve splenic CD8+ T cells with anti-CD3/CD28 activating antibodies in the presence or absence of suppressor cells, and then co-cultured the pre-activated T cells with target cancer cells in the presence of a fluorogenic caspase-3 substrate. Fluorescence from the substrate in cancer cells was detected by real-time fluorescence microscopy as an indicator of T-cell induced tumor cell apoptosis. In this assay, we can successfully detect the increase of tumor cell apoptosis by CD8+ T cells and its suppression by pre-culture with TAMs or MDSCs. This functional assay is useful for investigating CD8+ T cell suppression mechanisms by regulatory myeloid cells and identifying druggable targets to overcome it via high throughput screening.

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

We describe here a protocol to investigate cytotoxicity of pre-activated CD8+ T cells against cancer cells by detecting apoptotic cancer cells via real-time microscopy. This protocol can investigate mechanisms behind myeloid cell-induced T cell suppression and evaluate compounds aimed at replenishing T cells via blockade of immune suppressive myeloid cells.

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful ...

Droplet Digital TRAP (ddTRAP): Adaptation of the Telomere Repeat Amplification Protocol to Droplet Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction

The telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) is the most widely used assay to detect telomerase activity within a given a sample. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method allows for robust measurements of enzyme activity from most cell lysates. The gel-based TRAP with fluorescently labeled primers limits sample throughput, and the ability to detect differences in samples is restricted to two fold or greater changes in enzyme activity. The droplet digital TRAP, ddTRAP, is a highly sensitive approach that has been modified from the traditional TRAP assay, enabling the user to perform a robust analysis on 96 samples per run and obtain absolute quantification of the DNA (telomerase extension products) input within each PCR. Therefore, the newly developed ddTRAP assay overcomes the limitations of the traditional gel-based TRAP assay and provides a more efficient, accurate, and quantitative approach to measuring telomerase activity within laboratory and clinical settings.

Droplet Digital TRAP ddTRAP: Adaptation of the Telomere Repeat Amplification Protocol to Droplet Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction

We successfully converted the standard telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) assay to be employed in droplet digital polymerase chain reactions. This new assay, called ddTRAP, is more sensitive and quantitative, allowing for better detection and statistical analysis of telomerase activity within various human cells.

The telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) is the most widely used assay to detect telomerase activity within a given a sample. The polymerase ...

Optimization, Design and Avoiding Pitfalls in Manual Multiplex Fluorescent Immunohistochemistry

Microenvironment evaluation of intact tissue for analysis of cell infiltration and spatial organization are essential in understanding the complexity of disease processes. The principle techniques used in the past include immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF) which enable visualization of cells as a snapshot in time using between 1 and 4 markers. Both techniques have shortcomings including difficulty staining poorly antigenic targets and limitations related to cross-species reactivity. IHC is reliable and reproducible, but the nature of the chemistry and reliance on the visible light spectrum allows for only a few markers to be used and makes co-localization challenging. Use of IF broadens potential markers but typically relies on frozen tissue due to the extensive tissue autofluorescence following formalin fixation. Flow cytometry, a technique that enables simultaneous labeling of multiple epitopes, abrogates many of the deficiencies of IF and IHC, however, the need to examine cells as a single cell suspension loses the spatial context of cells discarding important biologic relationships. Multiplex fluorescent immunohistochemistry (mfIHC) bridges these technologies allowing for multi-epitope cellular phenotyping in formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissue while preserving the overall microenvironment architecture and spatial relationship of cells within intact undisrupted tissue. High fluorescent intensity fluorophores that covalently bond to the tissue epitope enables multiple applications of primary antibodies without worry of species specific cross-reactivity by secondary antibodies. Although this technology has been proven to produce reliable and accurate images for the study of disease, the process of creating a useful mfIHC staining strategy can be time consuming and exacting due to extensive optimization and design. In order to make robust images that represent accurate cellular interactions in-situ and to mitigate the optimization period for manual analysis, presented here are methods for slide preparation, optimizing antibodies, multiplex design as well as errors commonly encountered during the staining process.

Multiplex fluorescent immunohistochemistry is an emerging technology that enables the visualization of multiple cell types within intact formalin-fixed, paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissue. Presented are guidelines for ensuring a successful 7-color multiplex with instructions for optimizing antibodies and reagents, preparing slides, design and tips for avoiding common problems.

Microenvironment evaluation of intact tissue for analysis of cell infiltration and spatial organization are essential in understanding the complexity of ...

ATAC-Seq Optimization for Cancer Epigenetics Research

The assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq) probes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) accessibility using the hyperactive Tn5 transposase. Tn5 cuts and ligates adapters for high-throughput sequencing within accessible chromatin regions. In eukaryotic cells, genomic DNA is packaged into chromatin, a complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins, which acts as a physical barrier to the transcriptional machinery. In response to extrinsic signals, transcription factors recruit chromatin remodeling complexes to enable access to the transcriptional machinery for gene activation. Therefore, identifying open chromatin regions is useful when monitoring enhancer and gene promoter activities during biological events such as cancer progression. Since this protocol is easy to use and has a low cell input requirement, ATAC-seq has been widely adopted to define open chromatin regions in various cell types, including cancer cells. For successful data acquisition, several parameters need to be considered when preparing ATAC-seq libraries. Among them, the choice of cell lysis buffer, the titration of the Tn5 enzyme, and the starting volume of cells are crucial for ATAC-seq library preparation in cancer cells. Optimization is essential for generating high-quality data. Here, we provide a detailed description of the ATAC-seq optimization methods for epithelial cell types.

ATAC-seq is a DNA sequencing method that uses the hyperactive mutant transposase, Tn5, to map changes in chromatin accessibility mediated by transcription factors. ATAC-seq enables the discovery of the molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic alterations in cancer cells. This protocol outlines optimization procedures for ATAC-seq in epithelial cell types, including cancer cells.

The assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq) probes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) accessibility using the ...

Enhancing Targeted Cancer Diagnosis by Quantifying Single-Cell Mechanics

Shear Assay Protocol for the Determination of Single-Cell Material Properties

Irregular biomechanics are a hallmark of cancer biology subject to extensive study. The mechanical properties of a cell are similar to those of a material. A cell's resistance to stress and strain, its relaxation time, and its elasticity are all properties that can be derived and compared to other types of cells. Quantifying the mechanical properties of cancerous (malignant) versus normal (non-malignant) cells allows researchers to further uncover the biophysical fundamentals of this disease. While the mechanical properties of cancer cells are known to consistently differ from the mechanical properties of normal cells, a standard experimental procedure to deduce these properties from cells in culture is lacking. 
This paper outlines a procedure to quantify the mechanical properties of single cells in vitro using a fluid shear assay. The principle behind this assay involves applying fluid shear stress onto a single cell and optically monitoring the resulting cellular deformation over time. Cell mechanical properties are subsequently characterized using digital image correlation (DIC) analysis and fitting an appropriate viscoelastic model to the experimental data generated from the DIC analysis. Overall, the protocol outlined here aims to provide a more effective and targeted method for the diagnosis of difficult-to-treat cancers.

Author Spotlight: Shear Assay Protocol for the Determination of Single-Cell Material Properties  

This protocol outlines the quantification of the mechanical properties of cancerous and non-cancerous cell lines in vitro. Conserved differences in the mechanics of cancerous and normal cells can act as a biomarker that may have implications in prognosis and diagnosis.