We thank Terry Shelley for manufacturing the fly arena and the light-tight enclosure, Liz Marr for help with fly stock maintenance, and Xiaojing Gao and Junjie Luo for help with the Matlab code used for data analysis. We thank Johan Lundstr&#246;m at the Monell Chemical Senses Center for demonstrating his odor delivery setup. This work was supported by grants from the Whitehall Foundation (CJP) and NIH NIDCD (R01DC013070, CJP).

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

وolfactometer أربعة الميدانية الموصوفة هنا هو نظام السلوكي تنوعا لدراسة ردود حاسة الشم لوجود أعداد كبيرة من النوع البري ومتحولة ذبابة الفاكهة الذباب. يأخذ كل تجربة ~ 1 ساعة (بما في ذلك الإعداد، التشغيل التجريبي، والتنظيف)، و4-6 التجارب لا يمكن أن يؤديها بشكل روتيني كل ي?...

القدرة على التكيف والاستجابة للبيئة الخارجية هو أمر حاسم لبقاء جميع الحيوانات. يحتاج الحيوان إلى تجنب المخاطر، والسعي إلى الطعام وتجد زملائه، والتعلم من التجارب السابقة. تعمل أنظمة حسية لاستقبال مجموعة متنوعة من المحفزات، مثل البصرية والكيميائية وميكانيكية حسية، وترسل هذه الإشارات إلى الجهاز العصبي المركزي إلى أن تفسر وفك الشفرة. الدماغ ثم يوجه السلوكيات الحركية المناسبة تبعا لبيئة ينظر إليها، مثل بحثا عن الغذاء أو الهروب من الحيوانات المفترسة. فهم كيفية الكشف عن أنظمة حسية العالم الخارجي، وكيف يترجم المخ ويوجه القرارات، تحديا كبيرا في علم الأعصاب. ذبابة الفاكهة هو نظام نموذج قوي للتحقيق في كيفية العصبية السلوكيات الدوائر دليل. وبالإضافة إلى كونها بسيطة وغير مكلفة للحفاظ على، ذبابة الفاكهة المعرض العديد من السلوكيات المتنوعة والمعقدة النمطية، ولكن القيام بذلك مع COMPACر الجهاز العصبي من حوالي 100،000 الخلايا العصبية. وتوجد تقنيات وراثية قوية لمعالجة جينوم ذبابة الفاكهة، والآلاف من خطوط المعدلة وراثيا قد تولدت أن تسمية انتقائي وبتكاثر نفس مجموعات فرعية من الخلايا العصبية 10-13. هذه خطوط المعدلة وراثيا يمكن أن تستخدم للتلاعب بشكل انتقائي على نشاط الخلايا العصبية المسماة (تنشيط أو تثبيط)، وهذه المعالجات يمكن استخدامها للتحقق من مدى العصبية السلوكيات وظائف دليل. وقد وضعت المقايسات سلوكية متعددة لدراسة مختلف السلوكيات ذبابة الفاكهة. ذبابة الفاكهة، مثل العديد من الحيوانات، واستخدام حاسة الشم لتوجيه العديد من الخيارات السلوكية، مثل إيجاد الغذاء، وإيجاد الاصحاب، وتجنب المخاطر. لذا الشم هو نظام الحسي جيد للتحقيق في كيفية الكشف عن المؤثرات الخارجية وتفسيرها من قبل الجهاز العصبي للحيوان لتوجيه الخيارات المناسبة. على هذا النحو، وقد وضعت عددا من المقايسات لinvestigaتينغ اليرقات والسلوكيات حاسة الشم الكبار. تقليديا، كانت يعاير السلوكيات حاسة الشم في ذبابة الفاكهة عن طريق الاختيار اثنين النموذج T-متاهة، والتي يمكن أن تستخدم لمعايرة الفطرية وتعلم السلوكيات حاسة الشم 3. في هذا الاختبار، يتم منح حوالي 50 الذباب الاختيار بين اثنين من أنابيب: أنبوب واحد يحتوي على رائحة في مسألة والآخر يحتوي على الرائحة التحكم (عادة المذيب رائحة). وترد الذباب فترة معينة من الوقت لاتخاذ خيار، ثم عدد من الذباب التي هي في غرف مختلفة تحسب. على الرغم من أن T-متاهة هو فحص بسيط للعديد من التجارب، وهناك العديد من القيود. على سبيل المثال، يتم قياس السلوكيات حاسة الشم عند نقطة مرة واحدة فقط، ويتم التخلص منها خيارات مختلفة ألقاه أمام هذه نقطة زمنية. وبالمثل، فإن إهمال السلوكيات الفردية من الذباب في أوساط السكان. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، T-متاهة يتطلب العد والفرز اليدوي من الذباب، والتي قد إدخال أخطاء. وأخيرا، لأن هناك خيارين فقط مدروسة، وهذايقلل من القدرة الإحصائية في كثير من الأحيان المطلوبة للكشف عن التغيرات السلوكية خفية. بديل للاختيار من اثنين T-متاهة هو أربعة رباعي (أربعة الحقل) olfactometer 14-18. في هذا الاختبار، والحيوانات استكشاف الساحة التي شغل في كل من الزوايا الأربع من الساحة مع مصدرا محتملا للهواء odorized. الساحة ديها شكل نجمة مجعد لتحقيق أقصى قدر من تشكيل أربعة أجزاء رائحة محددة تجريبيا. إذا تم توفير رائحة في واحدة من زوايا ثم يرد عليه فقط في هذا الربع واحد. يمكن تتبع سلوكيات الحيوانات لأنها تدخل وترك الربع رائحة، وبسهولة مقارنة سلوكهم في الأرباع الثلاث لمراقبة. وبالتالي olfactometer فحص أربعة رباعي السجلات استجابة سلوكية المكانية والزمانية للمنبهات رائحة على الساحة التجريبية كبيرة. تم تطوير olfactometer أربعة رباعي أول مرة من قبل بيترسون وآخرون. 15 والطبيب البيطري وآخرون. 17 للتحقيق في رأالاستجابات السلوكية مصنع من غشائيات الأجنحة الطفيلية الفردية. Faucher وآخرون. 18 وSemmelhack وانغ 16 تكييفها الإعداد لرصد ردود حاسة الشم الفردية ذبابة الفاكهة. وolfactometer أربعة رباعي حساسة بالتساوي على الردود جذابة ومثيرة للاشمئزاز، والسماح لمجموعة واسعة من عطر اختبار والشروط. تتبع البرامج الطيران العرف مكتوب، التي وضعتها أليكس Katsov 19 ويحتفظ بها حاليا من قبل جوليان براون (المفصل في المواد)، قدم مزايا إضافية لمزيد من تطبيقات الأخيرة من olfactometer أربعة رباعي 14،20-23. أصبح من الممكن الآن لفحص ما يصل الى 100 الذباب في وقت واحد في مكانية عالية (27.5 بكسل / سم) والزمنية (30 لقطة في الثانية) القرار الذي يسمح استخراج معايير مختلفة، مثل موقف والسرعة والتسارع من الذباب في أي نقطة زمنية. وهذا يتيح التحقيقات في ديناميات الاستجابات السلوكية الذباب &quot;لالروائح 20 </sتصل&gt;. وتجدر الإشارة إلى أنه، مع ذلك، أن هوية الذباب الفردية ضمن السكان خلال الفترة تتبع كامل لم يتم المحافظة. بدلا من ذلك، يتم تسجيل كل مسار الطيران لطالما مسارين ذبابة لا تتقاطع. وعند هذه النقطة، يتم تعيين مسارات جديدة بعد تتباعد الذباب. من خلال دمج البرامج الأخرى التقاط الفيديو (المفصلة في الجدول المواد)، وهو نفس التكوين يسمح فترات تتبع مرنة ويمكن استخدامها لتتبع الذباب لمدة تصل إلى 24 ساعة من التقاط الصور في انخفاض معدل الإطار. وقد استخدم هذا الخيار لدراسة السلوكيات وضع البيض من الذباب ومقارنة أوضاع الجسم مع تفضيلات ovipositional 14. ويمكن أيضا أن تستخدم olfactometer أربعة المجال لدراسة الردود على المتعدد الوسائط (مثل حاسة الشم والبصرية) المحفزات، أو الجمع بين علم البصريات الوراثي 9 أو توليد الحرارة 21 التحفيز مع العروض من المحفزات الحسية. وعلاوة على ذلك، يسمح القرار زمنية عالية استخراج مسارات FOص كل ذبابة الفردية في مجموعة البيانات الفرقة. وبالتالي، يسمح للطريقة التحقيق في سلوك السكان حاسة الشم الموجهة، وكذلك التفاعلات الاجتماعية الفردية. البيانات التي تم إنشاؤها بواسطة هذا الاختبار هي قوية وقابلة للتكرار للغاية، مما يسمح للاستخدام olfactometer أربعة الميداني للشاشات السلوكية. نحن هنا وصف التجمع الإعداد لolfactometer أربعة رباعي. علينا مواصلة التظاهر استخدامها في معايرة جذب حاسة الشم ردا على خل التفاح والتنافر ردا على بروبيونات إيثيل عالية التركيز. وأخيرا، نحن تصف وتوفير رمز المثال لتحليل البيانات تتبع الطيران المسجلة.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Air delivery system&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:960px;">(Quantity needed)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Tubing and connectors</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermoplastic NPT(F) Manifolds</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer, IL, USA</td>
			<td>R-31522-31</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hex reducing&#160; nipple (1/4MNPT-&#62;1/8MNPT)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5232T314</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tubing (ID:1/8)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5108K43</td>
			<td>50Ft</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tubing (ID:1/16)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>52355K41</td>
			<td>100Ft</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barbed tube fittings</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5117K71</td>
			<td>1pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Push-to-connect tube fittings</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5779K102</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barbed Tube Fittings (1/4MNPT-&#62;1/8BF)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5463K439</td>
			<td>1 pack (10)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barbed Tube Fittings (1/8MNPT-&#62;1/8BF)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5463K438</td>
			<td>2 pack (10)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barbed Tube Fittings (1/8MNPT-&#62;1/16BF)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>5463K4</td>
			<td>2 pack (10)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barbed Tube Fittings (1/4MNPT-&#62;1/4BF)</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>&#160; 5670K84</td>
			<td>1</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hex head plug</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>48335K152</td>
			<td>1</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Air pressure regulator, air filter and flowmeters</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td>(Quantity needed)</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Labatory gas drying unit</td>
			<td>W A HAMMOND DRIERITE CO LTD, OH, USA</td>
			<td>Model: L68-NP-303; stock #26840</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Multitube frames for 150-mm flowtubes</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer, IL, USA</td>
			<td>R03215-30</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Multitube frames for 150-mm flowtubes</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer, IL, USA</td>
			<td>R03215-76</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">150-mm flowtubes</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer, IL, USA</td>
			<td>R-03217-15</td>
			<td>9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Valve Cartridge</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer, IL, USA</td>
			<td>R-03218-72</td>
			<td>9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Precision Air regulator</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">6162K13</td>
			<td>1</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Soleniod valves</td>
			<td>Automate Scientific, Berkeley, CA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">02-10i</td>
			<td>4</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Solenoid valve controller</td>
			<td>ValveLink 8.2, Automate Scientific, Berkeley, CA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">01-18</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Electronic flow meter</td>
			<td>Honeywell</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">AWM3100V</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DAQ (NI USB-6009, National Instruments) and a&#160;</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">NI USB-6009</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Power supply</td>
			<td>Extech Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">382200</td>
			<td>1</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Odor chambers</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Polypropylene Wide Mouth jar 2oz; 60ml</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Nalgene</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">562118-0002</td>
			<td>At least 5 are required per experiment, but a separate chamber is required for each dillution of each odorant. Available at Container Store, part #635114)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Glass odor chamber, 0.25 oz</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Sunburst Bottle</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">LB4B</td>
			<td>At least 5 are required per experiment&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">&#34;In&#34; valve for odor chamber</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Smart Products, Inc., CA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">214224PB-0011S000-4074</td>
			<td>1 of these parts is used per odor chamber but they need to be replaced frequently</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">&#34;Out&#34; valve for odor chamber</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Smart Products, Inc., CA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">224214PB-0011S000-4074</td>
			<td>1 of these parts is used per odor chamber but they need to be replaced frequently</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">O ring</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">RT Dygert International, MN, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">AS568-029 Buna-N O-R</td>
			<td>1 pack (100)</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Fly arena, camera and behavior boxes</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td>(Quantity needed)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:335px;">Behavior and camera box material</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Interstate plastics, CA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">ABS black extruded (https://www.interstateplastics.com/Abs-Black-Extruded-Sheet-ABSBE~~ST.php)</td>
			<td>1803 sq inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Teflon for fly arena and odor chamber inserts, 3/8&#34; thick, 12&#34;x12&#34;</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>8545K27&#160;</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Glass plates, 1/8&#34; Thick, 9&#34;x 9&#34;</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr, IL, USA</td>
			<td>8476K191&#160;</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Dual action thermoelectric controller</td>
			<td>WAtronix Inc, CA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">DA12V-K-0</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">IR LED array</td>
			<td>Advanced Illumination, Rochester, VT, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">AL4554-88024, PS24-TL</td>
			<td>2 LED arrays and one power supply</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Air conditioner Unit</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Melcor Store</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">&#160;MAA280T-12</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Imaging system</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td>(Quantity needed)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="31">
			<td height="31" style="height:31px;">Cosmicar/Pentax C21211TH (12.5mm F/1.4) C-mount Lens</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">B AND H PHOTO AND ELECTRONICS CORP, NY, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">PEC21211 KP</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">CCXC-12P05N Interconnect Cable</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">B AND H PHOTO AND ELECTRONICS CORP, NY, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">SOCCXC12P05N</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">DC-700 Camera Adapter</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">B AND H PHOTO AND ELECTRONICS CORP, NY, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">SODC700</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="28">
			<td height="28" style="height:28px;">B+W 40,5 093 IR filter</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">B AND H PHOTO AND ELECTRONICS CORP, NY, USA</td>
			<td>65-072442</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TiFFEN 40.5mm Circular polarizer</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">IR Videocamera</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Industrial Vision Source, FL, USA</td>
			<td>Sony XC-EI50 (SY-XC-E150)</td>
			<td>1</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">USB video converter</td>
			<td>The Imagingsource, NC, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">DFG/USB2-It</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">iFlySpy2 (fly tracking software)</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Julian Brown, Stanford, Calfornia: julianrbrown@gmail.com</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">iFlySpy2</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:335px;">IC Capture 2.2 software</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">The Imagingsource, NC, USA (http://www.theimagingsource.com/en_US/products/software/iccapture/)</td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Miscellaneous</td>
			<td style="width:397px;"></td>
			<td style="width:244px;"></td>
			<td>(Quantity needed)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Dremel rotary tool</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Dremel, Racine, WI, USA</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">Dremel 8000-03&#160;</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Diamond-coated drill bits for glass cutting</td>
			<td style="width:397px;">Available from various suppliers; MSC industrial Supply Co, Melville, NY</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">90606328</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

olfactory behaviors assayed by computer tracking of drosophila in a four-quadrant olfactometer

ويكمن التحدي الرئيسي في بيولوجيا الأعصاب هو فهم كيف الدوائر العصبية تعمل لتوجيه سلوكيات الحيوان المناسبة. ذبابة الفاكهة هو نظام نموذجا ممتازا لمثل هذه التحقيقات بسبب سلوكياتها معقدة، تقنيات وراثية قوية، والجهاز العصبي المضغوط. وقد استخدمت مختبر فحوصات السلوكية طويلة مع ذبابة الفاكهة لمحاكاة خصائص البيئة الطبيعية ودراسة الآليات العصبية الكامنة وراء السلوكيات المقابلة (على سبيل المثال انجذاب ضوئي، الكيميائي، والتعلم الحسية والذاكرة) 1-3. مع توافر الأخيرة من مجموعات كبيرة من خطوط ذبابة الفاكهة المعدلة وراثيا أن تسمية مجموعات فرعية العصبية محددة، وقد اتخذت المقايسات السلوكية على الدور البارز لربط الخلايا العصبية مع السلوكيات 4-11. نماذج متعددة وقابلة للتكرار، جنبا إلى جنب مع إجراءات الحسابية الأساسية لتحليل البيانات، لا غنى عنها لاختبارات سريعة لخطوط الطيران مرشح مع مختلف genotypوفاق. ولا سيما مفيدة هي الاجهزة التي تتسم بالمرونة في عدد الحيوانات المختبرة، ومدة التجارب وطبيعة المحفزات المقدمة. يجب فحص الاختيار أيضا توليد البيانات استنساخه التي هي سهلة للحصول على وتحليلها. هنا، نقدم وصفا مفصلا للنظام وبروتوكول لمعايرة الاستجابات السلوكية ذبابة الفاكهة الذباب في الساحة أربعة ميدانية كبيرة. يستخدم الإعداد هنا لفحص ردود الذباب لحافز الشم واحد؛ ومع ذلك، قد يتم تعديل نفس الإعداد لاختبار حاسة الشم متعددة، والمحفزات البصرية أو علم البصريات الوراثي، أو مزيج من هذه. الإعداد olfactometer يسجل النشاط السكان ذبابة الرد على الروائح، وتطبق الأساليب التحليلية الحسابية لتحديد السلوكيات الطاير. ويتم تحليل البيانات التي تم جمعها للحصول على قراءة سريعة التدريجي من شوط التجريبية، وهو أمر ضروري لجمع البيانات بكفاءة والاستفادة المثلى من الظروف التجريبية.

أربعة رباعي olfactometer سجلات فحص وتحليل أنشطة قريبة من العديد من الذباب على مساحة السلوكي كبير. ويمكن إدخال عطور في تيارات الهواء التي تدخل واحد، اثنان، ثلاثة، أو كل أربعة أجزاء. في حالة عدم وجود الروائح الكريهة، والذباب التحرك بحرية بين جميع الأرباع ا?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer at JoVE.com

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

We describe here a behavioral setup and data analysis method for assaying olfactory responses of up to 100 vinegar flies (Drosophila melanogaster). This system may be used with single or multiple olfactory stimuli, and adaptable for optogenetic activation or silencing of neuronal subsets.

السلوكيات حاسة الشم يعاير التي تتبع الكمبيوتر<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; في Olfactometer أربعة رباعي

A key challenge in neurobiology is to understand how neural circuits function to guide appropriate animal behaviors. Drosophila melanogaster is an ...

olfactory-behaviors-assayed-computer-tracking-drosophila-four

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

15.6K Views.  Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. We describe here a behavioral setup and data analysis method for assaying olfactory responses of up to 100 vinegar flies (Drosophila melanogaster). This system may be used with single or multiple olfactory stimuli, and adaptable for optogenetic activation or silencing of neuronal subsets.

Video: Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

Combining Computer Game-Based Behavioural Experiments With High-Density EEG and Infrared Gaze Tracking

Experimental paradigms are valuable insofar as the timing and other parameters of their stimuli are well specified and controlled, and insofar as they yield data relevant to the cognitive processing that occurs under ecologically valid conditions. These two goals often are at odds, since well controlled stimuli often are too repetitive to sustain subjects' motivation. Studies employing electroencephalography (EEG) are often especially sensitive to this dilemma between ecological validity and experimental control: attaining sufficient signal-to-noise in physiological averages demands large numbers of repeated trials within lengthy recording sessions, limiting the subject pool to individuals with the ability and patience to perform a set task over and over again. This constraint severely limits researchers' ability to investigate younger populations as well as clinical populations associated with heightened anxiety or attentional abnormalities. Even adult, non-clinical subjects may not be able to achieve their typical levels of performance or cognitive engagement: an unmotivated subject for whom an experimental task is little more than a chore is not the same, behaviourally, cognitively, or neurally, as a subject who is intrinsically motivated and engaged with the task. A growing body of literature demonstrates that embedding experiments within video games may provide a way between the horns of this dilemma between experimental control and ecological validity. The narrative of a game provides a more realistic context in which tasks occur, enhancing their ecological validity (Chaytor &amp; Schmitter-Edgecombe, 2003). Moreover, this context provides motivation to complete tasks. In our game, subjects perform various missions to collect resources, fend off pirates, intercept communications or facilitate diplomatic relations. In so doing, they also perform an array of cognitive tasks, including a Posner attention-shifting paradigm (Posner, 1980), a go/no-go test of motor inhibition, a psychophysical motion coherence threshold task, the Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, 1950, 1954) and a theory-of-mind (Wimmer &amp; Perner, 1983) task. The game software automatically registers game stimuli and subjects' actions and responses in a log file, and sends event codes to synchronise with physiological data recorders. Thus the game can be combined with physiological measures such as EEG or fMRI, and with moment-to-moment tracking of gaze. Gaze tracking can verify subjects' compliance with behavioural tasks (e.g. fixation) and overt attention to experimental stimuli, and also physiological arousal as reflected in pupil dilation (Bradley et al., 2008). At great enough sampling frequencies, gaze tracking may also help assess covert attention as reflected in microsaccades - eye movements that are too small to foveate a new object, but are as rapid in onset and have the same relationship between angular distance and peak velocity as do saccades that traverse greater distances. The distribution of directions of microsaccades correlates with the (otherwise) covert direction of attention (Hafed &amp; Clark, 2002).

Procedures for recording high-density EEG and gaze data during computer game-based cognitive tasks are described. Using a video game to present cognitive tasks enhances ecological validity without sacrificing experimental control.

الجمع بين لعبة الكمبيوتر المستندة إلى تجارب السلوكي مع ارتفاع الكثافة تتبع النظرة EEG والأشعة تحت الحمراء

Experimental paradigms are valuable insofar as the timing and other parameters of their stimuli are well specified and controlled, and insofar as they ...

Assessment of Social Interaction Behaviors

Social interactions are a fundamental and adaptive component of the biology of numerous species. Social recognition is critical for the structure and stability of the networks and relationships that define societies. For animals, such as mice, recognition of conspecifics may be important for maintaining social hierarchy and for mate choice 1.
A variety of neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by disruptions in social behavior and social recognition, including depression, autism spectrum disorders, bipolar disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and schizophrenia. Studies of humans as well as animal models (e.g., Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus) have identified genes involved in the regulation of social behavior 2. To assess sociability in animal models, several behavioral tests have been developed (reviewed in 3). Integrative research using animal models and appropriate tests for social behavior may lead to the development of improved treatments for social psychopathologies.
The three-chamber paradigm test known as Crawley's sociability and preference for social novelty protocol has been successfully employed to study social affiliation and social memory in several inbred and mutant mouse lines (e.g. 4-7). The main principle of this test is based on the free choice by a subject mouse to spend time in any of three box's compartments during two experimental sessions, including indirect contact with one or two mice with which it is unfamiliar. To quantitate social tendencies of the experimental mouse, the main tasks are to measure a) the time spent with a novel conspecific and b) preference for a novel vs. a familiar conspecific. Thus, the experimental design of this test allows evaluation of two critical but distinguishable aspects of social behavior, such as social affiliation/motivation, as well as social memory and novelty. "Sociability" in this case is defined as propensity to spend time with another mouse, as compared to time spent alone in an identical but empty chamber 7. "Preference for social novelty" is defined as propensity to spend time with a previously unencountered mouse rather than with a familiar mouse 7. This test provides robust results, which then must be carefully analyzed, interpreted and supported/confirmed by alternative sociability tests. In addition to specific applications, Crawley's sociability test can be included as an important component of general behavioral screen of mutant mice.

Here we describe a detailed protocol for examination of sociability in mice by using Crawley's sociability and preference for social novelty test. We describe the advantages and possible applications for this procedure, including critical details important for correct interpretation of the results.

تقييم سلوك التفاعل الاجتماعي

Social interactions are a fundamental and adaptive component of the biology of numerous species. Social recognition is critical for the structure and ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

مشهي التعلم النقابي في الشم<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; اليرقات

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in cognitive diseases1-7. Learning and memory can be assayed in larvae to study the effect of neurodevelopmental genes8-10 and in flies to measure the contribution of adult plasticity genes1-7. Furthermore, the short lifespan of Drosophila facilitates the analysis of genes mediating age-related memory impairment5,11-13. The availability of many inducible promoters that subdivide the Drosophila nervous system makes it possible to determine when and where a gene of interest is required for normal memory as well as relay of different aspects of the reinforcement signal3,4,14,16.
Studying memory in adult Drosophila allows for a detailed analysis of the behavior and circuitry involved and a measurement of long-term memory15-17. The length of the adult stage accommodates longer-term genetic, behavioral, dietary and pharmacological manipulations of memory, in addition to determining the effect of aging and neurodegenerative disease on memory3-6,11-13,15-21.
Classical conditioning is induced by the simultaneous presentation of a neutral odor cue (conditioned stimulus, CS+) and a reinforcement stimulus, e.g., an electric shock or sucrose, (unconditioned stimulus, US), that become associated with one another by the animal1,16. A second conditioned stimulus (CS-) is subsequently presented without the US. During the testing phase, Drosophila are simultaneously presented with CS+ and CS- odors. After the Drosophila are provided time to choose between the odors, the distribution of the animals is recorded. This procedure allows associative aversive or appetitive conditioning to be reliably measured without a bias introduced by the innate preference for either of the conditioned stimuli. Various control experiments are also performed to test whether all genotypes respond normally to odor and reinforcement alone.

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

The method to measure adult Drosophila associative memory is described. The assay is based on the ability of the fly to associate an odor presented with a negative reinforcer (electric shock) and then recall this information at a later time, allowing memory to be measured.

ذبابة الفاكهة الكبار الشم صدمة التعلم

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the ...

A Computer-assisted Multi-electrode Patch-clamp System

The patch-clamp technique is today the most well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual neurons or their subcellular compartments. Nevertheless, achieving stable recordings, even from individual cells, remains a time-consuming procedure of considerable complexity. Automation of many steps in conjunction with efficient information display can greatly assist experimentalists in performing a larger number of recordings with greater reliability and in less time. In order to achieve large-scale recordings we concluded the most efficient approach is not to fully automatize the process but to simplify the experimental steps and reduce the chances of human error while efficiently incorporating the experimenter's experience and visual feedback. With these goals in mind we developed a computer-assisted system which centralizes all the controls necessary for a multi-electrode patch-clamp experiment in a single interface, a commercially available wireless gamepad, while displaying experiment related information and guidance cues on the computer screen. Here we describe the different components of the system which allowed us to reduce the time required for achieving the recording configuration and substantially increase the chances of successfully recording large numbers of neurons simultaneously.

Multi-electrode patch-clamp recordings constitute a complex task. Here we show how, by automating of many of the experimental steps, it is possible to accelerate the process leading to qualitative improvement in performance and number of recordings.

A-متعدد القطب نظام التصحيح، المشبك بمساعدة الحاسوب

The patch-clamp technique is today the most  well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual  neurons or their subcellular ...

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

Odorant molecules bind to their target receptors in a precise and coordinated manner. Each receptor recognizes a specific signal and relays this information to the brain. As such, determining how olfactory information is transferred to the brain, modifying both perception and behavior, merits investigation. Interestingly, there is emerging evidence that cellular transduction and transcriptional factors are involved in the diversification of olfactory receptor neuron. Here we provide a robust whole mount immunological labeling method to assay in vivo olfactory receptor neuron organization. Using this method, we identified all olfactory receptor neurons with anti-ELAV antibody, a known pan-neural marker and Or49a-mCD8::GFP, an olfactory receptor neuron specifically expressed in Nba neuron using anti-GFP antibody.

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

Herein we describe the process of whole mount immunostaining of Drosophila antennae, which enables us to better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in the diversification of olfactory receptor neurons (ORN)s.

كله من جبل Immunolabeling الشم مستقبلات الخلايا العصبية في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; الهوائي

Odorant molecules bind to their target receptors in a precise and coordinated manner. Each receptor recognizes a specific signal and relays this ...

A Low-cost Method for Analyzing Seizure-like Activity and Movement in Drosophila

Video tracking systems have been used widely to analyze Drosophila melanogaster movement and detect various abnormalities in locomotive behavior. While these systems can provide a wealth of behavioral information, the cost and complexity of these systems can be prohibitive for many labs. We have developed a low-cost assay for measuring locomotive behavior and seizure movement in D. melanogaster. The system uses a web-cam to capture images that can be processed using a combination of inexpensive and free software to track the distance moved, the average velocity of movement and the duration of movement during a specified time-span. To demonstrate the utility of this system, we examined a group of D. melanogaster mutants, the Bang-sensitive (BS) paralytics, which are 3-10 times more susceptible to seizure-like activity (SLA) than wild type flies. Using this novel system, we were able to detect that the BS mutant bang senseless (bss) exhibits lower levels of exploratory locomotion in a novel environment than wild type flies. In addition, the system was used to identify that the drug metformin, which is commonly used to treat type II diabetes, reduces the intensity of SLA in the BS mutants.

A Low-cost Method for Analyzing Seizure-like Activity and Movement in Drosophila

Using a webcam and a combination of free and inexpensive software programs, locomotive patterns in Drosophila melanogaster can be analyzed to detect differences in the speed, distance, and time of various motor activities.

وهناك طريقة منخفضة التكلفة لتحليل مثل الاستيلاء آخر والحركة في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em

Video tracking systems have been used widely to analyze Drosophila melanogaster movement and detect various abnormalities in locomotive behavior. While ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

فيفو السابقين الاستعدادات للالميكعي الجهاز سليمة والإكسسوار الشم لمبة

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of the nervous system often produce viable larvae and adults that have locomotion defective phenotypes that are difficult to adequately describe with text or completely represent with a single photographic image. Current modes of scientific publishing, however, support the submission of digital video media as supplemental material to accompany a manuscript. Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique for acquiring high-quality digital video of both Drosophila larval and adult phenotypes from a lateral perspective. Video of larval and adult locomotion from a side-view is advantageous because it allows the observation and analysis of subtle distinctions and variations in aberrant locomotive behaviors. We have successfully used the technique to visualize and quantify aberrant crawling behaviors in third instar larvae, in addition to adult mutant phenotypes and behaviors including grooming.

Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique to acquire high-quality digital video of Drosophila adult and larval mutant phenotypes from a lateral perspective.

شراء عالية الجودة الفيديو الرقمية<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; السلوكيات اليرقات والكبار من منظور الجانبي

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of ...

Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

The ability to measure neurotransmitter release on a rapid time scale allows patterns of neurotransmission to be linked to specific behaviors or manipulations; a powerful tool in elucidating underlying mechanisms and circuitry. While the technique of microdialysis has been used for decades to measure nearly any analyte of interest in the brain, this technique is limited in temporal resolution. Alternatively, fast scan cyclic voltammetry is both temporally precise and extremely sensitive; however, because this technically difficult method relies on the electroactivity of the analyte of interest, the possibility to detect nonelectroactive substances (e.g., the neurotransmitter glutamate) is eliminated. This paper details the use of a turn-key system that combines fixed-potential amperometry and enzymatic biosensing to measure both electroactive and nonelectroactive neurotransmitters with temporal precision. The pairing of these two powerful techniques allows for the measurement of both tonic and phasic neurotransmission with relative ease, and permits recording of multiple neurotransmitters simultaneously. The aim of this manuscript is to demonstrate the process of measuring dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission in vivo using a naturally rewarding behavior (i.e., sexual behavior) in female hamsters, with the ultimate goal of displaying the technical feasibility of this assay for examining other behaviors and experimental paradigms.

Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

This paper details the use of fixed-potential amperometric recordings using carbon fiber electrodes and enzymatic biosensor technology to measure the release of dopamine and glutamate with high temporal resolution during natural rewarding behavior in the female hamster.

السلوكيات حاسة الشم يعاير التي تتبع الكمبيوتر

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الجمع بين لعبة الكمبيوتر المستندة إلى تجارب السلوكي مع ارتفاع الكثافة تتبع النظرة EEG والأشعة تحت الحمراء

تقييم سلوك التفاعل الاجتماعي

مشهي التعلم النقابي في الشم

ذبابة الفاكهة الكبار الشم صدمة التعلم

A-متعدد القطب نظام التصحيح، المشبك بمساعدة الحاسوب

كله من جبل Immunolabeling الشم مستقبلات الخلايا العصبية في

وهناك طريقة منخفضة التكلفة لتحليل مثل الاستيلاء آخر والحركة في

فيفو السابقين الاستعدادات للالميكعي الجهاز سليمة والإكسسوار الشم لمبة

شراء عالية الجودة الفيديو الرقمية

قياس التغيرات في فيفو في خارج الخلية العصبية أثناء الطبع مكافأة السلوكيات في أنثى الهامستر السوري