<ol>
	<li>Maas, A. I. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traumatic+brain+injury:+integrated+approaches+to+improve+prevention,+clinical+care,+and+research.">Traumatic brain injury: integrated approaches to improve prevention, clinical care, and research.</a> The Lancet Neurology. 16 (12), 987-1048 (2017).</li><li>Taylor, C. A., Bell, J. M., Breiding, M. J., Xu, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traumatic+Brain+Injury-Related+Emergency+Department+Visits,+Hospitalizations,+and+Deaths+-+United+States,+2007+and+2013.">Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths - United States, 2007 and 2013.</a> Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries. 66 (9), 1-16 (2007).</li><li>Pearn, M. 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A., Bhattacharya, A., Rabai, F., Shukla, K., Dore, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood-Related+Toxicity+after+Traumatic+Brain+Injury:+Potential+Targets+for+Neuroprotection.">Blood-Related Toxicity after Traumatic Brain Injury: Potential Targets for Neuroprotection.</a> Molecular Neurobiology. 57 (1), 159-178 (2020).</li><li>Morganti-Kossmann, M. C., Semple, B. D., Hellewell, S. C., Bye, N., Ziebell, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+complexity+of+neuroinflammation+consequent+to+traumatic+brain+injury:+from+research+evidence+to+potential+treatments.">The complexity of neuroinflammation consequent to traumatic brain injury: from research evidence to potential treatments.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 137 (5), 731-755 (2019).</li><li>Ramlackhansingh, A. 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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammatory+neuroprotection+following+traumatic+brain+injury.">Inflammatory neuroprotection following traumatic brain injury.</a> Science. 353 (6301), 783-785 (2016).</li><li>Xiong, Y., Mahmood, A., Chopp, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+of+traumatic+brain+injury.">Animal models of traumatic brain injury.</a> Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 14 (2), 128-142 (2013).</li><li>Johnson, V. E., Meaney, D. F., Cullen, D. K., Smith, D. 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P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Contribution+to+the+Theory+of+Cerebral+Concussion.">A Contribution to the Theory of Cerebral Concussion.</a> Annals of Surgery. 23 (2), 163-173 (1896).</li><li>King, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+temperature+profiles+during+epidural+cooling+with+the+ChillerPad+in+a+monkey+model+of+traumatic+brain+injury.">Brain temperature profiles during epidural cooling with the ChillerPad in a monkey model of traumatic brain injury.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 27 (10), 1895-1903 (2010).</li><li>Costine, B. 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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time+course+of+cellular+pathology+after+controlled+cortical+impact+injury.">Time course of cellular pathology after controlled cortical impact injury.</a> Experimental Neurology. 182 (1), 87-102 (2003).</li><li>Lee, H. F., Lin, J. S., Chang, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acute+Kahweol+Treatment+Attenuates+Traumatic+Brain+Injury+Neuroinflammation+and+Functional+Deficits.">Acute Kahweol Treatment Attenuates Traumatic Brain Injury Neuroinflammation and Functional Deficits.</a> Nutrients. 11 (10), 2301 (2019).</li><li>Dixon, C. E., Clifton, G. L., Lighthall, J. W., Yaghmai, A. A., Hayes, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+controlled+cortical+impact+model+of+traumatic+brain+injury+in+the+rat.">A controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury in the rat.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 39 (3), 253-262 (1991).</li><li>Hung, T. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deletion+or+inhibition+of+soluble+epoxide+hydrolase+protects+against+brain+damage+and+reduces+microglia-mediated+neuroinflammation+in+traumatic+brain+injury.">Deletion or inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase protects against brain damage and reduces microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury.</a> Oncotarget. 8 (61), 103236-103260 (2017).</li><li>Wu, C. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Post-injury+treatment+with+7,8-dihydroxyflavone,+a+TrkB+receptor+agonist,+protects+against+experimental+traumatic+brain+injury+via+PI3K/Akt+signaling.">Post-injury treatment with 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, a TrkB receptor agonist, protects against experimental traumatic brain injury via PI3K/Akt signaling.</a> PLoS One. 9 (11), 113397 (2014).</li><li>Chen, S. F., Su, W. S., Wu, C. H., Lan, T. H., Yang, F. 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		<tr >
			<td >4mm Short Trephine Drill</td>
			<td >Salvin Dental Specialties, Inc.</td>
			<td >TREPH-SHORT-4</td>
			<td ></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >anti-Iba1 antibody</td>
			<td >Wako chemicals</td>
			<td >#019-19741</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >anti-Ly76 antibody</td>
			<td >abcam</td>
			<td >ab91113</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >carboxylate cement</td>
			<td >3M</td>
			<td >70201136010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >cortical contusion injury impactor</td>
			<td >Custom Design &#38; Fabrication, Inc.</td>
			<td >S/N 49-2004-C, eCCI Model 6.3</td>
			<td >CCI device (S/N 49-2004-C, eCCI Model 6.3)</td>
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			<td >cresyl violet acetate</td>
			<td >Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td >C5042</td>
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			<td >Vector</td>
			<td >SK-4105</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td >goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td >Invitrogen</td>
			<td >A11034</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td >goat anti-rat IgG secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor 594</td>
			<td >Invitrogen</td>
			<td >A11007</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td >Mayer&#39;s Hematoxylin</td>
			<td >ScyTek</td>
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			<td></td>
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			<td >fine science tools</td>
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			<td >isoflurane</td>
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			<td >scissors</td>
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			<td >14068-12</td>
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			<td >solvent blue 38</td>
			<td >Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td >S3382</td>
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a preclinical controlled cortical impact model for traumatic hemorrhage contusion and neuroinflammation

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Preclinical Controlled Cortical Impact Model for Traumatic Hemorrhage Contusion and Neuroinflammation at JoVE.com

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>نموذج تأثير قشري خاضع للرقابة قبل السريرية للنزيف الرضحي والكدمة العصبية

نموذج تأثير قشري خاضع للرقابة قبل السريرية للنزيف الرضحي والكدمة العصبية

Cerebral contusion is a severe medical problem affecting millions of people worldwide each year. There is an urgent need to understand the ...

a-preclinical-controlled-cortical-impact-model-for-traumatic

Research

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Medicine

A Preclinical Controlled Cortical Impact Model for Traumatic Hemorrhage Contusion and Neuroinflammation

1.8K Views.  Cheng Hsin General Hospital. يمكن أن يؤدي النزيف الوحمي الداخلي والالتهاب العصبي المصحوب بكدمة دماغية إلى إصابة ثانوية شديدة في الدماغ. يوضح هذا البروتوكول بالتفصيل نموذج التأثير القشري الذي يتم التحكم فيه بالفأر (CCI) ، مما يسمح للباحثين بدراسة النزيف والكدمة والاستجابا?...

Video: نموذج تأثير قشري خاضع للرقابة قبل السريرية للنزيف الرضحي والكدمة العصبية

Gene Transfer for Ischemic Heart Failure in a Preclinical Model

Various emerging technologies are being developed for patients with heart failure. Well-established preclinical evaluations are necessary to determine their efficacy and safety.
Gene therapy using viral vectors is one of the most promising approaches for treating cardiac diseases. Viral delivery of various different genes by changing the carrier gene has immeasurable therapeutic potential.
In this video, the full process of an animal model of heart failure creation followed by gene transfer is presented using a swine model. First, myocardial infarction is created by occluding the proximal left anterior descending coronary artery. Heart remodeling results in chronic heart failure. Unique to our model is a fairly large scar which truly reflects patients with severe heart failure who require aggressive therapy for positive outcomes. After myocardial infarct creation and development of scar tissue, an intracoronary injection of virus is demonstrated with simultaneous nitroglycerine infusion. Our injection method provides simple and efficient gene transfer with enhanced gene expression. This combination of a myocardial infarct swine model with intracoronary virus delivery has proven to be a consistent and reproducible methodology, which helps not only to test the effect of individual gene, but also compare the efficacy of many genes as therapeutic candidates.

A method of gene transfer for the treatment of ischemic heart failure is described using a swine model of myocardial infarction. Our simple and reproducible method enables us to readily evaluate the efficacy of various gene transfers with a very simple and reproducible way.

نقل الجينات لقصور القلب الدماغية في نموذج ما قبل السريرية

Various emerging technologies are being developed for patients with heart failure. Well-established preclinical evaluations are necessary to determine ...

Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for objective diagnosis but also for the evaluation of therapeutic efficacy and resilience to trauma. Ongoing research is directed at identifying molecular biomarkers for PTSD, including traumatic stress induced proteins, transcriptomes, genomic variances and genetic modulators, using biologic samples from subjects' blood, saliva, urine, and postmortem brain tissues. However, the correlation of these biomarker molecules in peripheral or postmortem samples to altered brain functions associated with psychiatric symptoms in PTSD remains unresolved. Here, we present an animal model of PTSD in which both peripheral blood and central brain biomarkers, as well as behavioral phenotype, can be collected and measured, thus providing the needed correlation of the central biomarkers of PTSD, which are mechanistic and pathognomonic but cannot be collected from people, with the peripheral biomarkers and behavioral phenotypes, which can.
Our animal model of PTSD employs restraint and tail shocks repeated for three continuous days - the inescapable tail-shock model (ITS) in rats. This ITS model mimics the pathophysiology of PTSD 17, 7, 4, 10. We and others have verified that the ITS model induces behavioral and neurobiological alterations similar to those found in PTSD subjects 17, 7, 10, 9. Specifically, these stressed rats exhibit (1) a delayed and exaggerated startle response appearing several days after stressor cessation, which given the compressed time scale of the rat's life compared to a humans, corresponds to the one to three months delay of symptoms in PTSD patients (DSM-IV-TR PTSD Criterian D/E 13), (2) enhanced plasma corticosterone (CORT) for several days, indicating compromise of the hypothalamopituitary axis (HPA), and (3) retarded body weight gain after stressor cessation, indicating dysfunction of metabolic regulation.
The experimental paradigms employed for this model are: (1) a learned helplessness paradigm in the rat assayed by measurement of acoustic startle response (ASR) and a charting of body mass; (2) microdissection of the rat brain into regions and nuclei; (3) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for blood levels of CORT; (4) a gene expression microarray plus related bioinformatics tools 18. This microarray, dubbed rMNChip, focuses on mitochondrial and mitochondria-related nuclear genes in the rat so as to specifically address the neuronal bioenergetics hypothesized to be involved in PTSD.

We describe a rat model of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that reveals the persistent alterations in neuroendocrine function and the delayed long-term, exaggerated fear response, characteristic of PTSD patients. The animal model and methods described here are useful for correlating biomarkers in brain nuclei, which are mechanistic but cannot be measured in patients, with biomarkers in peripheral white blood cells, which can.

المؤشرات الحيوية في نموذج حيواني لكشف الاقتران العصبية، الدموية، والسلوكية للPTSD

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for ...

A Contusion Model of Severe Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

The translational potential of novel treatments should be investigated in severe spinal cord injury (SCI) contusion models. A detailed methodology is described to obtain a consistent model of severe SCI. Use of a stereotactic frame and computer controlled impactor allows for creation of reproducible injury. Hypothermia and urinary tract infection pose significant challenges in the post-operative period. Careful monitoring of animals with daily weight recording and bladder expression allows for early detection of post-operative complications. The functional results of this contusion model are equivalent to transection models. The contusion model can be utilized to evaluate the efficacy of both neuroprotective and neuroregenerative approaches.

A contusion model of severe spinal cord injury is described. Detailed pre-operative, operative and post-operative steps are described to obtain a consistent model.

نموذج كدمة شديدة اصابات الحبل الشوكي في الجرذان

The translational potential of novel treatments should be investigated in severe spinal cord injury (SCI) contusion models. A detailed methodology is ...

A Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

In this video publication a standardized mouse model of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is presented. Bleeding is induced by endovascular Circle of Willis perforation (CWp) and proven by intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring. Thereby a homogenous blood distribution in subarachnoid spaces surrounding the arterial circulation and cerebellar fissures is achieved. Animal physiology is maintained by intubation, mechanical ventilation, and continuous on-line monitoring of various physiological and cardiovascular parameters: body temperature, systemic blood pressure, heart rate, and hemoglobin saturation. Thereby the cerebral perfusion pressure can be tightly monitored resulting in a less variable volume of extravasated blood. This allows a better standardization of endovascular filament perforation in mice and makes the whole model highly reproducible. Thus it is readily available for pharmacological and pathophysiological studies in wild type and genetically altered mice.

A standardized mouse model of subarachnoid hemorrhage by intraluminal Circle of Willis perforation is described. Vessel perforation and subarachnoid bleeding are monitored by intracranial pressure monitoring. In addition various vital parameters are recorded and controlled to maintain physiologic conditions.

A نموذج من الفئران تحت العنكبوتية نزف

In this video publication a standardized mouse model of subarachnoid  hemorrhage (SAH) is presented. Bleeding is induced by endovascular Circle of  Willis ...

A Preclinical Murine Model of Hepatic Metastases

Numerous murine models have been developed to study human cancers and advance the understanding of cancer treatment and development. Here, a preclinical, murine pancreatic tumor model of hepatic metastases via a hemispleen injection of syngeneic murine pancreatic tumor cells is described. This model mimics many of the clinical conditions in patients with metastatic disease to the liver. Mice consistently develop metastases in the liver allowing for investigation of the metastatic process, experimental therapy testing, and tumor immunology research.

A preclinical, murine model of hepatic metastases performed via a hemispleen injection technique.

وما قبل السريرية الفئران نموذج من الانبثاث الكبدي

Numerous murine models have been developed to study human cancers and advance the understanding of cancer treatment and development. Here, a preclinical, ...

Controlled Cortical Impact Model for Traumatic Brain Injury

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, social, and economical effects are staggering. Therefore, further research into the effects of TBI and effective treatments is necessary. The controlled cortical impact (CCI) model induces traumatic brain injuries ranging from mild to severe. This method uses a rigid impactor to deliver mechanical energy to an intact dura exposed following a craniectomy. Impact is made under precise parameters at a set velocity to achieve a pre-determined deformation depth. Although other TBI models, such as weight drop and fluid percussion, exist, CCI is more accurate, easier to control, and most importantly, produces traumatic brain injuries similar to those seen in humans. However, no TBI model is currently able to reproduce pathological changes identical to those seen in human patients. The CCI model allows investigation into the short-term and long-term effects of TBI, such as neuronal death, memory deficits, and cerebral edema, as well as potential therapeutic treatments for TBI.

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) remain a serious health problem. Using the controlled cortical impact surgery model, research on the effects of TBI and possible treatment methods may be performed.

تسيطر الموديل أثر القشرية لإصابات الدماغ الرضية

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI).  Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, ...

A Novel Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury for Juvenile Rats

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor vehicle accidents, and falls, a reliable animal model of mTBI had previously not been developed for this important aspect of development. The modified weight-drop technique employs a glancing impact to the head of a freely moving rodent transmitting acceleration, deceleration, and rotational forces upon the brain. When applied to juvenile rats, this modified weight-drop technique induced clinically relevant behavioural outcomes that were representative of post-concussion symptomology. The technique is a rapidly applied procedure with an extremely low mortality rate, rendering it ideal for high-throughput studies of therapeutics. In addition, because the procedure involves a mild injury to a closed head, it can easily be used for studies of repetitive brain injury. Owing to the simplistic nature of this technique, and the clinically relevant biomechanics of the injury pathophysiology, the modified weight-drop technique provides researchers with a reliable model of mTBI that can be used in a wide variety of behavioural, molecular, and genetic studies.

The modified weight-drop technique is an easy, cost-effective procedure used for the induction of mild traumatic brain injury in juvenile rats. This novel technique produces clinically relevant symptomology that will advance the study of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion.

نموذج رواية خفيفة إصابات الدماغ للالجرذان الأحداث

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor ...

Integrated Compensatory Responses in a Human Model of Hemorrhage

Hemorrhage is the leading cause of trauma-related deaths, partly because early diagnosis of the severity of blood loss is difficult. Assessment of hemorrhaging patients is difficult because current clinical tools provide measures of vital signs that remain stable during the early stages of bleeding due to compensatory mechanisms. Consequently, there is a need to understand and measure the total integration of mechanisms that compensate for reduced circulating blood volume and how they change during ongoing progressive hemorrhage. The body&#39;s reserve to compensate for reduced circulating blood volume is called the &#39;compensatory reserve&#39;. The compensatory reserve can be accurately evaluated with real-time measurements of changes in the features of the arterial waveform measured with the use of a high-powered computer. Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) has been shown to simulate many of the physiological responses in humans associated with hemorrhage, and is used to study the compensatory response to hemorrhage. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how compensatory reserve is assessed during progressive reductions in central blood volume with LBNP as a simulation of hemorrhage.

The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate the techniques for measuring compensatory responses to reduced central blood volume using lower body negative pressure as a noninvasive experimental model of human hemorrhage which can be used to quantify the total integration of compensatory mechanisms to blood volume deficit in humans.

الردود التعويضية متكاملة في نموذج الإنسان من نزف

Hemorrhage is the leading cause of trauma-related deaths, partly because early diagnosis of the severity of blood loss is difficult. Assessment of ...

A Mouse Model of Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal neurological deficits and even amnesia. Athletes participating in contact sports are at high risk of exposure to large number of mTBIs. In terms of the level of injury in a sporting athlete, a mTBI is defined as a mild injury that does not cause gross pathological changes, but does cause short-term neurological deficits that are spontaneously resolved. Despite previous attempts to model mTBI in mice and rats, many have reported gross adverse effects including skull fractures, intracerebral bleeding, axonal injury and neuronal cell death. Herein, we describe our highly reproducible animal model of mTBI that reproduces clinically relevant symptoms. This model uses a custom made pneumatic impactor device to deliver a closed-head trauma. This impact is made under precise velocity and deformation parameters, creating a reliable and reproducible model to examine the mechanisms that contribute to effects of single or repetitive concussive mTBI.

Athletes absorb several hundred mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI)/concussions every year; however, the consequence of these on the brain is poorly understood. Therefore, an animal model of single and repetitive mTBI that consistently replicates clinically relevant symptoms provides the means to advance the study of mTBI and concussion.

A نموذج الفأر من إصابات الدماغ الصدمة خفيفة ومتكررة خفيفة

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal ...

Contractions of Human-iPSC-derived Cardiomyocyte Syncytia Measured with a Ca-sensitive Fluorescent Dye in Temperature-controlled 384-well Plates

Spontaneously contracting syncytia of cardiomyocytes derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC-CM) are a useful model of human cardiac physiology and pharmacology. Various methods have been proposed to record this spontaneous activity and to evaluate drug effects, but many of these methods suffer from limited throughput and/or physiological relevance. We developed a high-throughput screening system to quantify the effects of exogenous compounds on hiPSC-CM's beating frequency, using a Ca-sensitive fluorescent dye and a temperature-controlled imaging multi-well plate reader. We describe how to prepare the cell plates and the compound plates and how to run the automated assay to achieve high sensitivity and reproducibility. We also describe how to transform and analyze the fluorescence data to provide reliable measures of drug effects on spontaneous rhythm. This assay can be used in drug discovery programs to guide chemical optimization away from, or toward, compounds affecting human cardiac function.

Spontaneously contracting syncytia of cardiomyocytes derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells are useful models of human cardiac physiology and pharmacology. Here we present a high-throughput screening system to quantify the effects of exogenous compounds on beating frequency, using a Ca-sensitive fluorescent dye and a temperature-controlled imaging multi-well plate reader.

تقلصات سينسيتيا كارديوميوسيتي المستمدة من اللجنة التوجيهية الإنسان يقاس بصبغة فلورسنت المراعية لكاليفورنيا في 384-جيدا لوحات التحكم في درجة الحرارة

Spontaneously contracting syncytia of cardiomyocytes derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC-CM) are a useful model of human cardiac ...