Supported by National Institutes of Health grant R01 EY035278 (MR).

Pig eyes were obtained from a local abattoir. No ethical committee approvals were required.
1. Lens dissection (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Remove all the surrounding tissue from the pig eyes and excess flesh from the sclera, until only the optic nerve remains. Use curved forceps and small dissection scissors to complete this process. Use the nerve as an anchor to hold the eye during dissection.</li>
	<li>Using a scalpel, make a short circumferential cut at the limbus, then another at the equator. 
	NOTE: This step is performed in this order to avoid damaging the lens and capsule.</li>
	<li>Insert microscissors into the cut at the limbus and remove the cornea by lifting the cornea with fine blunt-tipped forceps while cutting around the circumference of the cornea.</li>
	<li>Remove the iris by lifting using blunt-tipped forceps and cut away with micro-scissors.</li>
	<li>Insert dissection scissors into the equatorial cut, then cut circumferentially around the entire equator until the sclera is bisected.</li>
	<li>Once the cut is completed, remove the posterior portion of the sclera. Remove the vitreous gently with forceps, leaving minimal remnants to avoid damaging the lens. If required, cut the vitreous humor coronally to allow the posterior to pull away from the lens and anterior segment.</li>
	<li>Make a meridional cut through the sclera from anterior to posterior using microscissors.</li>
	<li>Beginning at the new meridional cut through the sclera, use microscissors to cut the zonules away from the lens. Using the weight of the lens or edge of the dissection dish, gently stretch the zonules when pulling the lens and sclera apart slightly, allowing the microscissors to cut between the lens and ciliary body, through the zonules, and around the circumference of the lens. This will isolate the lens without damaging the lens capsule if done correctly.</li>
	<li>If desired, remove the capsule using forceps to puncture the capsule at its equator, then peel away the capsule using two forceps.</li>
	<li>Place the lens in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Visually inspect the lens for any damage prior to mechanical testing.</li>
</ol>
2. Lens compression-with/without lens capsule (Figure 2)
NOTE: All steps here with the exception of steps 2.1 and 2.4 are computer-controlled.
<ol>
	<li>Obtain or construct a parallel plate compression apparatus having a 50 gram-force capacity load cell with the ability to measure displacement on the order of 1 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Program the motorized stage and load the cell to perform the loading regimen described below (e.g., Supplemental File 1).</li>
	<li>Nearly fill a square box of 1 5/8 inches x 1 5/8 inches with PBS and place it on the compression platform.</li>
	<li>Lower the upper plate into contact with the lower plate to determine the lower limit of motion and absolute gap height.</li>
	<li>Raise the upper plate by ~15 mm.</li>
	<li>Center the lens in the box, taking care that the equatorial plane is horizontal.</li>
	<li>Lower the upper plate close to, but not in contact with, the upper surface of the lens.</li>
	<li>Initiate motion to move the upper plate into contact with the lens, using force feedback with a contact threshold of 3 mN.</li>
	<li>Commence data recording upon determination of contact, recording time, position of the upper plate relative to the lower plate, and force at 500 Hz.</li>
	<li>Apply a preconditioning loading where the lens is compressed by 2.5% of its initial height three times, then 5% three times, then 7.5% three times at a rate of 1%/s.</li>
	<li>Hold the position of the upper plate constant for 1 min after preconditioning.</li>
	<li>Apply a 15% compression at a rate of 1%/s, followed by unloading at the same rate.</li>
	<li>Continue the unloading motion until the upper plate has traveled an additional 2% of the unloaded lens thickness away from the bottom plate to ensure the lens is de-adhered from the upper plate.</li>
</ol>
3. Estimation of lens modulus
<ol>
	<li>Estimate the thickness of the lens based on the instrument&#39;s gap at the point of contact. Alternatively, use image analysis to measure the thickness from a photograph taken before testing.</li>
	<li>Compute the elastic modulus E using the Hertz model for compression of a sphere between parallel plates (equation [1]; Supplemental File 2). 
	<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/66040/66040eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />&#160; &#160; &#160;(1) 
	Where R is the radius of curvature at the point of contact (assumed equal to half the lens thickness); F is the compression force reported by the load cell; <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/66040/66040eq02.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> is the Poisson&#39;s ratio (assumed equal to 0.5 corresponding to an incompressible material); and u is the downward approach of the upper stage from the point of contact. Note that the elastic modulus and Poisson&#39;s ratio are material properties indicating respectively the intrinsic stiffness of the lens and the lens&#39; relative compressibility. 
	NOTE: This method neglects any role of the lens capsule but does approximately account for the size of the lens, allowing comparison between species.</li>
</ol>

Biomechanical Characterization of Porcine Ocular Lens with Automated Compression

<ol>
	<li>Gullstrand, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Helmholtz's+treatise+on+physiological+optics.+translated+edn.">Helmholtz's treatise on physiological optics. translated edn.</a> The Optical Society of America. , (1924).</li><li>Helmholtz, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Uber+die+akkommodation+des+auges.">Uber die akkommodation des auges.</a> Arch Ophthalmol. 1, 1-74 (1855).</li><li>Burd, H. J., Wilde, G. S., Judge, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+spinning+lens+test+to+determine+the+stiffness+of+the+human+lens.">An improved spinning lens test to determine the stiffness of the human lens.</a> Exp Eye Res. 92 (1), 28-39 (2011).</li><li>Reilly, M. A., Martius, P., Kumar, S., Burd, H. J., Stachs, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanical+response+of+the+porcine+lens+to+a+spinning+test.">The mechanical response of the porcine lens to a spinning test.</a> Z Med Phys. 26 (2), 127-135 (2016).</li><li>Fisher, R. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+elastic+constants+of+the+human+lens.">The elastic constants of the human lens.</a> J Physiol. 212 (1), 147-180 (1971).</li><li>Erpelding, T. N., Hollman, K. W., O'Donnell, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatially+mapping+the+elastic+properties+of+the+lens+using+bubble-based+acoustic+radiation+force.">Spatially mapping the elastic properties of the lens using bubble-based acoustic radiation force.</a> IEEE Ultrasonics Symp. 1, 613-616 (2005).</li><li>Erpelding, T. N., Hollman, K. W., O'Donnell, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+age-related+elasticity+changes+in+porcine+lenses+using+bubble-based+acoustic+radiation+force.">Mapping age-related elasticity changes in porcine lenses using bubble-based acoustic radiation force.</a> Exp Eye Res. 84 (2), 332-341 (2007).</li><li>Yoon, S., Aglyamov, S., Karpiouk, A., Emelianov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high+pulse+repetition+frequency+ultrasound+system+for+the+ex+vivo+measurement+of+mechanical+properties+of+crystalline+lenses+with+laser-induced+microbubbles+interrogated+by+acoustic+radiation+force.">A high pulse repetition frequency ultrasound system for the ex vivo measurement of mechanical properties of crystalline lenses with laser-induced microbubbles interrogated by acoustic radiation force.</a> Phys Med Biol. 57 (15), 4871-4884 (2012).</li><li>Scarcelli, G., Kim, P., Yun, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+measurement+of+age-related+stiffening+in+the+crystalline+lens+by+Brillouin+optical+microscopy.">In vivo measurement of age-related stiffening in the crystalline lens by Brillouin optical microscopy.</a> Biophys J. 101 (6), 1539-1545 (2011).</li><li>Weeber, H. A., Gabriele, E., Wolfgang, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stiffness+gradient+in+the+crystalline+lens.">Stiffness gradient in the crystalline lens.</a> Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 245 (9), 1357-1366 (2007).</li><li>Reilly, M. A., Ravi, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microindentation+of+the+young+porcine+ocular+lens.">Microindentation of the young porcine ocular lens.</a> J Biomech Eng. 131 (4), 044502 (2009).</li><li>Gu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Connexin+50+and+AQP0+are+essential+in+maintaining+organization+and+integrity+of+lens+fibers.">Connexin 50 and AQP0 are essential in maintaining organization and integrity of lens fibers.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 60 (12), 4021-4032 (2019).</li><li>Sharma, P. K., Busscher, H. J., Terwee, T., Koopmans, S. A., van Kooten, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+study+on+the+viscoelastic+properties+of+human+and+animal+lenses.">A comparative study on the viscoelastic properties of human and animal lenses.</a> Exp Eye Res. 93 (5), 681-688 (2011).</li><li>Cheng, C., Gokhin, D. S., Nowak, R. B., Fowler, V. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+application+of+glass+coverslips+to+assess+the+compressive+stiffness+of+the+mouse+lens:+strain+and+morphometric+analyses.">Sequential application of glass coverslips to assess the compressive stiffness of the mouse lens: strain and morphometric analyses.</a> J Vis Exp. (111), e53986 (2016).</li><li>Baradia, H., Negin, N., Adrian, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+lens+stiffness+measurements.">Mouse lens stiffness measurements.</a> Exp Eye Res. 91 (2), 300-307 (2010).</li><li>Reilly, M. A., Cleaver, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inverse+elastographic+method+for+analyzing+the+ocular+lens+compression+test.">Inverse elastographic method for analyzing the ocular lens compression test.</a> J Innov Opt Health Sci. 10 (06), 1742009 (2017).</li><li>Hahn, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+ex+vivo+porcine+lens+shape+during+simulated+accommodation,+before+and+after+fs-laser+treatment.">Measurement of ex vivo porcine lens shape during simulated accommodation, before and after fs-laser treatment.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 56 (9), 5332-5343 (2015).</li><li>Parreno, J., Cheng, C., Nowak, R. B., Fowler, V. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+mechanical+strain+on+mouse+eye+lens+capsule+and+cellular+microstructure.">The effects of mechanical strain on mouse eye lens capsule and cellular microstructure.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 29 (16), 1963-1974 (2018).</li><li>Yoon, S., Aglyamov, S., Karpiouk, A., Emelianov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanical+properties+of+ex+vivo+bovine+and+porcine+crystalline+lenses:+age-related+changes+and+location-dependent+variations.">The mechanical properties of ex vivo bovine and porcine crystalline lenses: age-related changes and location-dependent variations.</a> Ultrasound Med Biol. 39 (6), 1120-1127 (2013).</li><li>Reilly, M. A., Hamilton, P., Gavin, P., Nathan, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+the+behavior+of+natural+and+refilled+porcine+lenses+in+a+robotic+lens+stretcher.">Comparison of the behavior of natural and refilled porcine lenses in a robotic lens stretcher.</a> Exp Eye Res. 88 (3), 483-494 (2009).</li><li>Mekonnen, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+lens+capsule+significantly+affects+the+viscoelastic+properties+of+the+lens+as+quantified+by+optical+coherence+elastography.">The lens capsule significantly affects the viscoelastic properties of the lens as quantified by optical coherence elastography.</a> Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 11, 1134086 (2023).</li><li>Wilde, G. S., Burd, H. J., Judge, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shear+modulus+data+for+the+human+lens+determined+from+a+spinning+lens+test.">Shear modulus data for the human lens determined from a spinning lens test.</a> Exp Eye Res. 97 (1), 36-48 (2012).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Lens compression is a versatile method for estimating lens stiffness. The procedures described above allow comparison between lenses of different species and different sizes. All deformations are normalized against lens size, and the calculation of the elastic modulus approximately accounts for lens size. The effective modulus is considerably higher than the modulus reported previously for the porcine lens4,7,11,<sup ...

The lens is the transparent and flexible organ found in the eye that allows it to focus on different distances by changing its refractive power. This ability is known as accommodation. The refractive power is altered due to the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscle. When the ciliary muscle contracts, the lens thickens and moves forward, increasing its refractive power1,2. The increase in refractive power allows the lens to focus on nearby objects. As humans age, the lens becomes stiffer and this ability to accommodate is gradually lost; this condition is known as presbyopia. The mechanism of stiffening remains unknown, at least in part due to the difficulties associated with the biomechanical characterization of the lens.
A variety of methods have been employed to estimate lens stiffness and biomechanical properties. These include lens spinning3,4,5, acoustic methods6,7,8, optical methods such as Brillouin microscopy9, indentation10,11, and compression12,13. Compression is the most accessible experimental technique as it can be performed with simple instrumentation (e.g., glass coverslips14,15) or a single motorized stage. We have previously shown how the biomechanical properties of the lens may be rigorously estimated from a compression test16. This process is technically challenging and requires specialized software not readily accessible to lens researchers interested in relative stiffness measurements. Therefore, in the present study, we focus on accessible methods for estimating the elastic modulus of the lens while accounting for lens size. The elastic modulus is an intrinsic material property related to its deformability: a high elastic modulus corresponds to a stiffer material.
The test itself is a parallel plate compression test and can therefore be performed on suitable commercial mechanical testing systems. Here, a custom instrument was constructed comprised of a motor, linear stage, motion controller, load cell, and amplifier. These were controlled using custom software which also recorded time, position, and load at regular intervals. Pig lenses do not accommodate but are easily accessible and inexpensive17. The following method was developed to incrementally compress the eye lens and quantify its elastic modulus. This method can be easily replicated and will be useful in the study of lens stiffness.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved Medium Point General Purpose Forceps</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>16-100-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Galil COM Libraries</td>
			<td>Galil Motion Control</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Precision Scalpel Handle&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12-000-164</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Linear Stage</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>6734K4 0.125&#34;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Load Cell</td>
			<td>FUTEK</td>
			<td>LSB200-FSH03869</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Load Cell Amplifier</td>
			<td>FUTEK</td>
			<td>IAA300-FSH03931</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>The Mathworks, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microprobe</td>
			<td>Surgical Design&#160;</td>
			<td>22-079-740</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miniature Self Opening Precision Scissors&#160;</td>
			<td>Excelta&#160;</td>
			<td>63042-004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motion Controller</td>
			<td>Galil Motion Control</td>
			<td>DMC-31012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motor</td>
			<td>Galil Motion Control</td>
			<td>BLM-N23-50-1000-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight Hemastats&#160;</td>
			<td>Fine Science&#160;</td>
			<td>NC9247203</td>
			<td>stainless steel, 14cm&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

automated compression testing of the ocular lens

The biomechanical properties of the ocular lens are essential to its function as a variable power optical element. These properties change dramatically with age in the human lens, resulting in a loss of near vision called presbyopia. However, the mechanisms of these changes remain unknown. Lens compression offers a relatively simple method for assessing the lens' biomechanical stiffness in a qualitative sense and, when coupled with appropriate analytical techniques, can help quantify biomechanical properties. A variety of lens compression tests have been performed to date, including both manual and automated, but these methods inconsistently apply key aspects of biomechanical testing such as preconditioning, loading rates, and time between measurements. This paper describes a fully automated lens compression test wherein a motorized stage is synchronized with a camera to capture the force, displacement, and shape of the lens throughout a preprogrammed loading protocol. A characteristic elastic modulus may then be calculated from these data. While demonstrated here using porcine lenses, the approach is appropriate for the compression of lenses of any species.

Six porcine lenses were compressed, first with the capsule intact, then after careful removal of the capsule. Thickness values were 7.65 &#177; 0.43 mm for encapsulated lenses and 6.69 &#177; 0.29 mm for decapsulated lenses (mean &#177; standard deviation). A typical loading history is shown in Figure 3. The resulting force-displacement curves were well-fitted by the Hertz model (i.e., they had a force proportional to the displacement raised to the power of 1.5; Figure 4...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Advancing Understanding of Age-Related Lens Stiffness Changes at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Advancing Understanding of Age-Related Lens Stiffness Changes 

We present an automated method for characterizing the effective elastic modulus of an ocular lens using a compression test.

Automated Compression Testing of the Ocular Lens

The biomechanical properties of the ocular lens are essential to its function as a variable power optical element. These properties change dramatically ...

automated-compression-testing-of-the-ocular-lens

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Bioengineering

2.2K Views.  The Ohio State University. We present an automated method for characterizing the effective elastic modulus of an ocular lens using a compression test.

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancing Understanding of Age-Related Lens Stiffness Changes 

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Generation of a Three-dimensional Full Thickness Skin Equivalent and Automated Wounding

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models reflect the human wound situation better than animal models. Although two-dimensional models are widely used to investigate processes such as cellular migration and proliferation, models that are more complex are required to gain a deeper knowledge about wound healing. Besides a suitable model system, the generation of precise and reproducible wounds is crucial to ensure comparable results between different test runs. In this study, the generation of a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent to study wound healing is shown. The dermal part of the models is comprised of human dermal fibroblast embedded in a rat-tail collagen type I hydrogel. Following the inoculation with human epidermal keratinocytes and consequent culture at the air-liquid interface, a multilayered epidermis is formed on top of the models. To study the wound healing process, we additionally developed an automated wounding device, which generates standardized wounds in a sterile atmosphere.

The goal of this protocol is to build up a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent, which resembles natural skin. With a specifically constructed automated wounding device, precise and reproducible wounds can be generated under maintenance of sterility.

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models ...

Robotic Production of Cancer Cell Spheroids with an Aqueous Two-phase System for Drug Testing

Cancer cell spheroids present a relevant in vitro model of avascular tumors for anti-cancer drug testing applications. A detailed protocol for producing both mono-culture and co-culture spheroids in a high throughput 96-well plate format is described in this work. This approach utilizes an aqueous two-phase system to confine cells into a drop of the denser aqueous phase immersed within the second aqueous phase. The drop rests on the well surface and keeps cells in close proximity to form a single spheroid. This technology has been adapted to a robotic liquid handler to produce size-controlled spheroids and expedite the process of spheroid production for compound screening applications. Spheroids treated with a clinically-used drug show reduced cell viability with increase in the drug dose. The use of a standard micro-well plate for spheroid generation makes it straightforward to analyze viability of cancer cells of drug-treated spheroids with a micro-plate reader. This technology is straightforward to implement both robotically and with other liquid handling tools such as manual pipettes.

A protocol for robotic printing of cancer cell spheroids in a high throughput 96-well plate format using an aqueous two-phase system is presented.

Cancer cell spheroids present a relevant in vitro model of avascular tumors for anti-cancer drug testing applications. A detailed protocol for producing ...

Three-Dimensionally Printed Microfluidic Cross-flow System for Ultrafiltration/Nanofiltration Membrane Performance Testing

Minimization and management of membrane fouling is a formidable challenge in diverse industrial processes and other practices that utilize membrane technology. Understanding the fouling process could lead to optimization and higher efficiency of membrane based filtration. Here we show the design and fabrication of an automated three-dimensionally (3-D) printed microfluidic cross-flow filtration system that can test up to 4 membranes in parallel. The microfluidic cells were printed using multi-material photopolymer 3-D printing technology, which used a transparent hard polymer for the microfluidic cell body and incorporated a thin rubber-like polymer layer, which prevents leakages during operation. The performance of ultrafiltration (UF), and nanofiltration (NF) membranes were tested and membrane fouling could be observed with a model foulant bovine serum albumin (BSA). Feed solutions containing BSA showed flux decline of the membrane. This protocol may be extended to measure fouling or biofouling with many other organic, inorganic or microbial containing solutions. The microfluidic design is especially advantageous for testing materials that are costly or only available in small quantities, for example polysaccharides, proteins, or lipids due to the small surface area of the membrane being tested. This modular system may also be easily expanded for high throughput testing of membranes.&#160;

Design and fabrication of a three-dimensionally (3-D) printed microfluidic cross-flow filtration system is demonstrated. The system is used to test performance and observe fouling of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration (thin film composite) membranes.

Minimization and management of membrane fouling is a formidable challenge in diverse industrial processes and other practices that utilize membrane ...

Development of an In Vitro Ocular Platform to Test Contact Lenses

Currently, in vitro evaluations of contact lenses (CLs) for drug delivery are typically performed in large volume vials,1-6 which fail to mimic physiological tear volumes.7 The traditional model also lacks the natural tear flow component and the blinking reflex, both of which are defining factors of the ocular environment. The development of a novel model is described in this study, which consists of a unique 2-piece design, eyeball and eyelid piece, capable of mimicking physiological tear volume. The models are created from 3-D printed molds (Polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon molds), which can be used to generate eye models from various polymers, such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and agar. Further modifications to the eye pieces, such as the integration of an explanted human or animal cornea or human corneal construct, will permit for more complex in vitro ocular studies. A commercial microfluidic syringe pump is integrated with the platform to emulate physiological tear secretion. Air exposure and mechanical wear are achieved using two mechanical actuators, of which one moves the eyelid piece laterally, and the other moves the eyeballeyepiece circularly. The model has been used to evaluate CLs for drug delivery and deposition of tear components on CLs.

Development of an In Vitro Ocular Platform to Test Contact Lenses

Current in vitro models for evaluating contact lenses (CLs) and other eye-related applications are severely limited. The presented ocular platform simulates physiological tear flow, tear volume, air exposure and mechanical wear. This system is highly versatile and can be applied to various in vitro analyses with CLs.

Currently, in vitro evaluations of contact lenses (CLs) for drug delivery are typically performed in large volume vials,1-6 which fail to mimic ...

A Millimeter Scale Flexural Testing System for Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Marine Sponge Spicules

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the flexural behavior of these LBBSs is important for understanding the origins of their remarkable mechanical functions.
We describe a protocol for performing three-point bending tests using a custom-built mechanical testing device that can measure forces ranging from 10-5 to 101 N and displacements ranging from 10-7 to 10-2 m. The primary advantage of this mechanical testing device is that the force and displacement capacities can be easily adjusted for different LBBSs. The device&#39;s operating principle is similar to that of an atomic force microscope. Namely, force is applied to the LBBS by a load point that is attached to the end of a cantilever. The load point displacement is measured by a fiber optic displacement sensor and converted into a force using the measured cantilever stiffness. The device&#39;s force range can be adjusted by using cantilevers of different stiffnesses.
The device&#39;s capabilities are demonstrated by performing three-point bending tests on the skeletal elements of the marine sponge Euplectella aspergillum. The skeletal elements&#8212;known as spicules&#8212;are silica fibers that are approximately 50 &#181;m in diameter. We describe the procedures for calibrating the mechanical testing device, mounting the spicules on a three-point bending fixture with a &#8776;1.3 mm span, and performing a bending test. The force applied to the spicule and its deflection at the location of the applied force are measured.

We present a protocol for performing three-point bending tests on sub-millimeter scale fibers using a custom-built mechanical testing device. The device can measure forces ranging from 20 &#181;N up to 10 N and can therefore accommodate a variety of fiber sizes.

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the ...

Simulating the Mechanics of Lens Accommodation via a Manual Lens Stretcher

The goal of this protocol is to mimic the biomechanics of physiological accommodation in a cost-efficient, practical manner. Accommodation is achieved through the contraction of the ciliary body and relaxation of zonule fibers, which results in the thickening of the lens necessary for near vision. Here, we present a novel, simple method in which accommodation is replicated by tensing the zonules connected to the lens capsule via a manual lens stretcher (MLS). This method monitors the radial stretching achieved by a lens when subjected to a consistent force and allows for a comparison of accommodating lenses, which can be stretched, to non-accommodating lenses, which cannot be stretched. Importantly, the stretcher couples to the zonules directly, and not to the sclera of the eye, thus only requiring the lens, zonules, and ciliary body rather than the entire globe sample. This difference can significantly decrease the cost of acquiring donor cadaver lenses by about 62% compared to acquiring an entire globe.

We present an efficient method of studying lens accommodation by using a manual lens stretcher. The protocol mimics physiological accommodation by pulling the zonules connected around the lens capsule, thereby, stretching the lens.

The goal of this protocol is to mimic the biomechanics of physiological accommodation in a cost-efficient, practical manner. Accommodation is achieved ...

A Microfluidic Platform for Stimulating Chondrocytes with Dynamic Compression

Mechanical stimuli are known to modulate biological functions of cells and tissues. Recent studies have suggested that compressive stress alters growth plate cartilage architecture and results in growth modulation of long bones of children. To determine the role of compressive stress in bone growth, we created a microfluidic device actuated by pneumatic pressure, to dynamically (or statically) compress growth plate chondrocytes embedded in alginate hydrogel cylinders. In this article, we describe detailed methods for fabricating and characterizing this device. The advantages of our protocol are: 1) Five different magnitudes of compressive stress can be generated on five technical replicates in a single platform, 2) It is easy to visualize cell morphology via a conventional light microscope, 3) Cells can be rapidly isolated from the device after compression to facilitate downstream assays, and 4) The platform can be applied to study mechanobiology of any cell type that can grow in hydrogels.

This article provides detailed methods for fabricating and characterizing a pneumatically actuating microfluidic device for chondrocyte compression.

Mechanical stimuli are known to modulate biological functions of cells and tissues. Recent studies have suggested that compressive stress alters growth ...

Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, and surgical repair, often fail. In order to define tendon function and demonstrate efficacy of new treatments, the mechanical properties of tendons from animal models must be accurately determined. Murine animal models are now widely used to study tendon disorders and evaluate novel treatments for tendinopathies; however, determining the mechanical properties of mouse tendons has been challenging. In this study, a new system was developed for tendon mechanical testing that includes 3D-printed fixtures that exactly match the anatomies of the humerus and calcaneus to mechanically test supraspinatus tendons and Achilles tendons, respectively. These fixtures were developed using 3D reconstructions of native bone anatomy, solid modeling, and additive manufacturing. The new approach eliminated artifactual gripping failures (e.g., failure at the growth plate failure rather than in the tendon), decreased overall testing time, and increased reproducibility. Furthermore, this new method is readily adaptable for testing other murine tendons and tendons from other animals.

The protocol describes efficient and reproducible tensile biomechanical testing methods for murine tendons through the use of custom-fit 3D printed fixtures.

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, ...

Automated Counterflow Centrifugal System for Small-Scale Cell Processing

Successful commercialization of gene and cell-based therapies requires manufacturing processes that are cost-effective and scalable. Buffer exchange and product concentration are essential components for most manufacturing processes. However, at the early stages of product development, these steps are often performed manually. Manual dead-end centrifugation for buffer exchange is labor-intensive, costly, and not scalable. A closed automated system can effectively eliminate this laborious step, but implementation can be challenging. Here, we describe a newly developed cell processing device that is suitable for small- to medium-scale cell processing and aims to bridge the gap between manual processing and large-scale automation. This protocol can be easily applied to various cell types and processes by modifying the flow rate and centrifugation speed. Our protocol demonstrated high cell recovery with shorter processing times in comparison to the manual process. Cells recovered from the automated process also maintained their proliferation rates. The device can be applied as a modular component in a closed manufacturing process to accommodate steps such as buffer exchange, cell formulation, and cryopreservation.

Automation is key to upscaling and cost management in cell manufacturing. This manuscript describes the use of a counterflow centrifugal cell processing device for automating the buffer exchange and cell concentration steps for small-scale bioprocessing.

Successful commercialization of gene and cell-based therapies requires manufacturing processes that are cost-effective and scalable. Buffer exchange and ...