The work was supported by the Scientific Research Fund for High-Level Talents, University of South China.

1. Preparation of plasmids
<ol>
	<li>Isolate plasmids from 4 mL overnight bacterial cultures using a plasmid miniprep kit. Elute with 40 &#181;L of elution buffer. 
	NOTE: Isolation of plasmids using a plasmid midi-prep kit is not necessary. A plasmid miniprep kit can fully meet the experimental requirements for embryo microinjection. In this protocol, the prepared UAS-cDNA/ORF plasmids contain ten copies of UAS, an Hsp70 minimal promoter, an attB site, a mini-white gene, and a gene of interest.</li>
	<li>Determine the plasmid DNA concentration using a spectrophotometer and store it at -80 &#176;C freezer. 
	NOTE: Plasmid concentration is not critical for successful embryo microinjection, as plasmid concentrations ranging from 20 ng/&#181;L to 1683 ng/&#181;L work well for transgenesis in Drosophila (Supplementary Table 1).</li>
	<li>Just before microinjection, thaw plasmids and centrifuge at 13000 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer 10 &#181;L of each plasmid from the upper layer of the liquid into a new 1.5 mL tube.</li>
</ol>
2. Pulling needles
<ol>
	<li>Turn on a needle puller with selected settings (Heat: 500, Pull: 50, Vel: 60, Delay: 90, Pressure: 200, Ramp Test: 510).</li>
	<li>Insert a borosilicate glass capillary (outer diameter 1.0 mm, inner diameter 0.75 mm, 10 cm length) into the needle puller and close the lid.</li>
	<li>Press the Pull button. Each glass capillary makes two needles.</li>
</ol>
3. Grinding needles (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Use a needle grinder mounted with an appropriate abrasive plate (for 0.7-2.0 &#181;m tip sizes) of a needle grinder.</li>
	<li>Wet the cloth (reference wire) with grinding solution (100 mL of distilled water with 0.9 g of NaCl, 1 mL of wetting agent) and fix the cloth.</li>
	<li>Turn on the needle grinder and keep the grinding plate rotating.</li>
	<li>Connect a needle to a foot air pump with a pressure gauge via a silicone capillary tube, and then mount the needle onto a needle holder of the needle grinder. Adjust the angle of the needle relative to the grinding plate to 35&#176; (Figure 1A, B).</li>
	<li>Adjust the position of the needle tip just above the grinding plate surface by using a coarse control knob under the microscope (Figure 1C). 
	NOTE: The pulled needles obtained in section 2 have a 6-8 mm taper and a less than 1 &#181;m tip (Figure 1D), as is described in the user manual of the puller.</li>
	<li>Keep the inner pressure of the needle at 40 psi using the foot air pump. Adjust the position of the needle tip by using a fine control knob under the microscope, and make the tip of the needle touch the grinding plate.</li>
	<li>Grind for 3-5&#160;s. When tiny air bubbles come out of the needle tip, unload the needle (Figure 1E). 
	NOTE: In the process of grinding, using an air pump prevents the grinding solution from siphoning.</li>
	<li>Put the ground needles into a storage case. 
	NOTE: Use freshly ground needles as much as possible, though the ground needles can be kept in a storage case for at least a few weeks before microinjection.</li>
</ol>
4. Preparing pipettes for loading plasmids
<ol>
	<li>Heat a 200 &#181;L pipette with the outer flame of an alcohol burner.</li>
	<li>Once it starts to melt, stretch the pipette.</li>
	<li>Cut off the sealed end of the stretched pipette with scissors, and the stretched pipette is then ready to load DNA into a ground needle. 
	NOTE: Alternatively, extremely long and fine tips for filling ground needles are commercially available.</li>
	<li>Place these pipettes in an autoclaved plastic box.</li>
</ol>
5. Collecting embryos
<ol>
	<li>Collect flies (vas-phiC31; + ; attP2) expressing phiC31 integrase and bearing the attP2 docking site 3 days after they are hatched from 50 vials and transfer them to a cage (&#966; 90 mm x 150 mm). Add a little fresh yeast paste to the center of each grape agar plate18.</li>
	<li>Prepare 2-4 cages of flies. Keep the cages and plates at 25 &#176;C and change the plates every day for 2-4 days. 
	NOTE: This study combined the vas-phiC31 transgene (Stock # 36313, Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center) on the first chromosome and the attP2 transgene (Stock # 36313, Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center) on the third chromosome. The resulting stock (vas-phiC31; + ; attP2) is used in this protocol. Yeast paste needs to be prepared daily, and fresh yeast paste must be fed to the flies. The replaced cages need to be cleared and dried to get rid of the remaining embryos in the cages.</li>
	<li>On the day of microinjection, change the cages and plates in the morning. Then, change the plates every 30 min and collect embryos from these plates. Change all the cages and plates at room temperature (RT) and afterward keep the cages and plates at 25 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: Some protocols prefer to incubate the cages and plates at 18 &#176;C for egg laying. It depends on the number of embryos one needs for microinjection.</li>
</ol>
6. Dechorionating embryos
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 30% bleach by mixing 60 mL of bleach (containing active chlorine content of 34-46 g/L) and 140 mL of double distilled water.</li>
	<li>Remove the remaining flies on the grape juice agar plates with a brush or forceps, and rinse embryos into a cell strainer with double distilled water.</li>
	<li>Dry the cell strainer containing the embryos with tissue paper.</li>
	<li>Place it in a Petri dish containing 30% bleach, and swirl the cell strainer by hand or a horizontal shaker for 1.5 min at 60 rpm. 
	NOTE: Rinsing is a critical step. If the rinsing time is not long enough, the shell of an embryo will not come off completely. If the rinsing time is too long, it will cause the embryo to become soft and break easily. The cell strainer should be completely submerged in the 30% bleach. Wear a pair of rubber gloves and a lab coat to avoid injuries caused by bleach.</li>
	<li>Rinse embryos for 2 min with double distilled water stored in a laboratory plastic wash bottle to remove the residual bleach. Pick the floating embryos for the line-up.</li>
</ol>
7. Lining up embryos
<ol>
	<li>Cut the solid grape juice agar into long strips using a blade. 
	NOTE: Use purple grape juice to make it easier to line up white embryos.</li>
	<li>Transfer the embryos onto a long strip using a paintbrush.</li>
	<li>Line up around 60 embryos with a dissecting needle along the edge of a long strip with their posteriors facing the outside of the strip. Line up around 60 embryos within 5 min. 
	NOTE: The micropyle is a cone-shaped protrusion at the anterior pole of the embryo, through which the sperm enters to fertilize the oocyte (Figure 2A). Therefore, based on the cone-shaped protrusion at the anterior pole of the embryo, it is easy to determine the posterior of the dechorionated embryo.</li>
	<li>Place an 18 mm double-sided tape lengthwise along the edge of a coverslip (18 mm x 18 mm) and remove the paper backing. Gently press the coverslip onto the aligned embryos. Ensure the embryos are glued to the center of the tape.</li>
</ol>
8. Desiccating embryos
<ol>
	<li>Place the coverslip with the lined-up embryos in a box containing desiccant. The drying time varies depending on temperature and humidity. 
	NOTE: The drying time is critical for microinjection and needs to be experimentally determined. The drying time is usually 9-10 min in summer and 17-18 min in winter.</li>
	<li>Cover the embryos with halocarbon oil. 
	NOTE: Do not drop too much oil onto the embryos, as the extra oil may overflow the adhesive. The volume ratio of halocarbon oil 700 and halocarbon oil 27 is 1:3.</li>
</ol>
9. Microinjecting embryos
<ol>
	<li>Load 2 &#181;L of DNA into the needle by using the stretched pipette. Ensure that there are no bubbles in the needle. Place the needle into the needle holder of the micromanipulator.</li>
	<li>Place the aligned embryos covered with halocarbon oil under an inverted microscope. Ensure that the posterior ends of the embryos face the needle.</li>
	<li>Use the micromanipulator to bring the needle close to the embryos. Clear the needle. Ensure that a drop of liquid coming out of the needle is visible. Starting from 300 hPa injection pressure and 20 hPa equilibrium pressure, adjust the pressure of injection and the pressure of equilibrium to ensure the optimal size of the drop of liquid.</li>
	<li>Use the micromanipulator to insert the needle into the posterior ends of the embryos, and use the foot control connected to the microinjector to inject the DNA (Figure 2). If a small halo is visible, DNA is successfully injected into the embryo. 
	NOTE: Select the multinucleate embryos for injection and kill the older embryos using the &#34;clean&#34; button. If a large amount of cytoplasm leaks after injection, embryos are under-dried. If only a small amount of or no amount of cytoplasm leaks after injection, injections are considered successful. If more than one-third of the embryos leak cytoplasm after injection, extend the drying time by 1-2 min. If more than one-third of the embryos are over-dried, shorten the drying time by 1-2 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the needle from the embryo. Move the needle to the posterior end of the next embryo. Repeat the above steps.</li>
	<li>Put the injected embryos into an agar plate. Place the plate in a room at 18-20 &#176;C. On the next day, transfer the plate to an incubator at a temperature of 25 &#176;C and a humidity of 50%-60%, and incubate for 1 day. 
	NOTE: After injection, keep embryos at a temperature of 18-20 &#176;C to slow down their development, facilitate the integration of plasmid DNA into the Drosophila genome, and increase the survival rate of the injected embryos.</li>
</ol>
10. Collecting larvae
<ol>
	<li>Use a dissecting needle to scrape and loosen the food in a vial. Supply the food with a few drops of distilled water. 
	NOTE: Allow the distilled water to be absorbed into the food to prevent larvae from drowning.</li>
	<li>Take out the plates from the incubator.</li>
	<li>Collect the hatched larvae with a paintbrush under a stereo microscope and transfer them to the vial.</li>
	<li>Place the vial into an incubator at a temperature of 25 &#176;C and a humidity of 50%-60%.</li>
</ol>
11. Obtaining transgenic flies
<ol>
	<li>Collect the hatched flies after the vial is incubated at 25 &#176;C for 10 days.</li>
	<li>Cross a single male fly to three virgin female flies of the TM2/TM6C Sb1 Tb1 balancers, and cross a single female fly to three male flies of the TM2/TM6C Sb1 Tb1 balancers.</li>
	<li>Place the crosses into an incubator at a temperature of 25 &#176;C and a humidity of 50%-60%.</li>
	<li>Screen the progeny for flies with orange eyes. These are the transgenic flies (Figure 3A-C). 
	NOTE: Flies bearing a copy of transgene at the attP2 docking site have orange eyes.</li>
	<li>Cross a single orange-eyed male fly to three virgin female flies of the TM2/TM6C Sb1 Tb1 balancers to establish a stock. 
	NOTE: More than one generation of crosses need to be set up in order to cross out the phiC31 transgene on the first chromosome.</li>
</ol>

phiC31 Integrase-Mediated Embryo Transgenesis in Drosophila

<ol>
	<li>Rubin, G. M., Spradling, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+transformation+of+Drosophila+with+transposable+element+vectors.">Genetic transformation of Drosophila with transposable element vectors.</a> Science. 218 (4570), 348-353 (1982).</li><li>Venken, K. J., Bellen, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenesis+upgrades+for+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Transgenesis upgrades for Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Development. 134 (20), 3571-3584 (2007).</li><li>Groth, A. C., Fish, M., Nusse, R., Calos, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Construction+of+transgenic+Drosophila+by+using+the+site-specific+integrase+from+phage+phic31.">Construction of transgenic Drosophila by using the site-specific integrase from phage phic31.</a> Genetics. 166 (4), 1775-1782 (2004).</li><li>Bischof, J., Maeda, R. K., Hediger, M., Karch, F., Basler, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optimized+transgenesis+system+for+Drosophila+using+germ-line-specific+phic31+integrases.">An optimized transgenesis system for Drosophila using germ-line-specific phic31 integrases.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104 (9), 3312-3317 (2007).</li><li>Markstein, M., Pitsouli, C., Villalta, C., Celniker, S. E., Perrimon, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exploiting+position+effects+and+the+gypsy+retrovirus+insulator+to+engineer+precisely+expressed+transgenes.">Exploiting position effects and the gypsy retrovirus insulator to engineer precisely expressed transgenes.</a> Nat Genet. 40 (4), 476-483 (2008).</li><li>Bateman, J. R., Lee, A. M., Wu, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Site-specific+transformation+of+Drosophila+via+phic31+integrase-mediated+cassette+exchange.">Site-specific transformation of Drosophila via phic31 integrase-mediated cassette exchange.</a> Genetics. 173 (2), 769-777 (2006).</li><li>Venken, K. J., He, Y., Hoskins, R. A., Bellen, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=P[acman]:+A+BAC+transgenic+platform+for+targeted+insertion+of+large+DNA+fragments+in+D.+melanogaster.">P[acman]: A BAC transgenic platform for targeted insertion of large DNA fragments in D. melanogaster.</a> Science. 314 (5806), 1747-1751 (2006).</li><li>Szabad, J., Bellen, H. J., Venken, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+assay+to+detect+in+vivo+Y+chromosome+loss+in+Drosophila+wing+disc+cells.">An assay to detect in vivo Y chromosome loss in Drosophila wing disc cells.</a> G3. 2 (9), 1095-1102 (2012).</li><li>Ringrose, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenesis+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Transgenesis in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 561, 3-19 (2009).</li><li>Van Der Graaf, K., Srivastav, S., Singh, P., Mcnew, J. A., Stern, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+melanogaster+attp40+docking+site+and+derivatives+are+insertion+mutations+of+msp-300.">The Drosophila melanogaster attp40 docking site and derivatives are insertion mutations of msp-300.</a> PLoS One. 17 (12), e0278598 (2022).</li><li>Duan, Q., Estrella, R., Carson, A., Chen, Y., Volkan, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+Drosophila+attp40+background+on+the+glomerular+organization+of+or47b+olfactory+receptor+neurons.">The effect of Drosophila attp40 background on the glomerular organization of or47b olfactory receptor neurons.</a> G3. 13 (4), 022 (2023).</li><li>Dietzl, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+genome-wide+transgenic+RNAi+library+for+conditional+gene+inactivation+in+Drosophila.">A genome-wide transgenic RNAi library for conditional gene inactivation in Drosophila.</a> Nature. 448 (7150), 151-156 (2007).</li><li>Pfeiffer, B. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tools+for+neuroanatomy+and+neurogenetics+in+Drosophila.">Tools for neuroanatomy and neurogenetics in Drosophila.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 105 (28), 9715-9720 (2008).</li><li>Bellen, H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+gene+disruption+project:+Progress+using+transposons+with+distinctive+site+specificities.">The Drosophila gene disruption project: Progress using transposons with distinctive site specificities.</a> Genetics. 188 (3), 731-743 (2011).</li><li>Zirin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Large-scale+transgenic+drosophila+resource+collections+for+loss-+and+gain-of-function+studies.">Large-scale transgenic drosophila resource collections for loss- and gain-of-function studies.</a> Genetics. 214 (4), 755-767 (2020).</li><li>Wei, P., Xue, W., Zhao, Y., Ning, G., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR-based+modular+assembly+of+a+UAS-cDNA/ORF+plasmid+library+for+more+than+5500+Drosophila+genes+conserved+in+humans.">CRISPR-based modular assembly of a UAS-cDNA/ORF plasmid library for more than 5500 Drosophila genes conserved in humans.</a> Genome Res. 30 (1), 95-106 (2020).</li><li>Fish, M. P., Groth, A. C., Calos, M. P., Nusse, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Creating+transgenic+Drosophila+by+microinjecting+the+site-specific+phic31+integrase+mRNA+and+a+transgene-containing+donor+plasmid.">Creating transgenic Drosophila by microinjecting the site-specific phic31 integrase mRNA and a transgene-containing donor plasmid.</a> Nat Protoc. 2 (10), 2325-2331 (2007).</li><li>Fujioka, M., Jaynes, J. B., Bejsovec, A., Weir, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+transgenic+Drosophila.">Production of transgenic Drosophila.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 136, 353-363 (2000).</li><li>Loncar, D., Singer, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+membrane+formation+during+the+cellularization+of+the+syncytial+blastoderm+of+Drosophila.">Cell membrane formation during the cellularization of the syncytial blastoderm of Drosophila.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 92 (6), 2199-2203 (1995).</li><li>Carmo, C., Araujo, M., Oliveira, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microinjection+techniques+in+fly+embryos+to+study+the+function+and+dynamics+of+SMC+complexes.">Microinjection techniques in fly embryos to study the function and dynamics of SMC complexes.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 2004, 251-268 (2019).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Here, we present a protocol for embryo microinjection for transgenesis in Drosophila. For phiC31-mediated site-specific transgenesis, we injected 120-140 embryos for each plasmid and obtained at least one transgenic line for around 85% of plasmids (Supplementary Table 2). In our experience, plasmid DNA isolated by a plasmid miniprep kit suffices for transgenesis in Drosophila. Plasmid DNA concentrations ranging from 20 ng/&#181;L to 1683 ng/&#181;L might have no apparent effect on the s...

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is extremely amenable to genetic manipulation and genetic analysis. Transgenic fruit flies are widely used in biological research. Since it was developed in the early 1980s, P-element transposon-mediated transgenesis has been indispensable for Drosophila research1. In some scenarios, other transposons, such as piggyBac and Minos have been used for transgenesis in Drosophila as well2. Transgenes via transposon are randomly inserted into the Drosophila genome, and the expression levels of transgenes at different genomic loci may vary due to position effects and thereby can not be compared2. These drawbacks were overcome by the phiC31-mediated site-specific transgenesis3. The bacteriophage&#160;phiC31 gene encodes an integrase that mediates sequence-specific recombination between the attB and attP sites in Drosophila3. Many attP docking sites have been characterized and are available in the Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
The phiC31 transgenesis system for Drosophila has been widely used by the fly community. Among the attP docking sites, attP18 on the X chromosome, attP40 on the second chromosome, and attP2 on the third chromosome are usually the preferred sites for transgene integration on each chromosome because transgenes at the three sites show high levels of inducible expression while having low levels of basal expression5. Recently, however, van der Graaf and colleagues found that the attP40 site, close to the Msp300 gene locus, and transgenes integrated at attP40 cause larval muscle nuclear clustering in Drosophila10. In another recent study, Duan and colleagues found that the homozygous attP40 chromosome disrupts the normal glomerular organization of the Or47b olfactory receptor neuron class in Drosophila11. These findings suggest that rigorous controls should be included when designing experiments and interpreting data.
Drosophila is an ideal model organism for in vivo interrogation of gene function due to its short life cycle, low cost, and easy maintenance. Genome-wide genetic screening relies on the construction of genome-wide transgenic libraries in Drosophila12,13,14,15. We previously generated 5551 UAS-cDNA/ORF constructs based on the binary GAL4/upstream activating sequence (GAL4/UAS) system, covering 83% of the Drosophila genes conserved in humans in the Drosophila Genomics Resource Center (DGRC) Gold Collection16. The UAS-cDNA/ORF plasmids can be used for the creation of a transgenic UAS-cDNA/ORF library in Drosophila. Efficient embryo microinjection technology can accelerate the creation of transgenic fly libraries.
For embryo microinjection, the needle tip is normally broken against a coverslip17. Thereby, needles frequently become clogged or cause leakage of large amounts of cytoplasm, and when these issues arise, new needles must be employed. Although beveling needles can enhance microinjection efficiency, the grinding solution enters the beveled tip during the grinding process. The grinding solution in the beveled tip does not quickly evaporate naturally; therefore, needles can not be utilized for microinjection directly after beveling. These factors reduce the efficiency of embryo microinjection procedures. Here, using the phiC31-mediated site-specific transgenesis in Drosophila as an example, we present a protocol for embryo microinjection for transgenesis in Drosophila.&#160;To prevent the grinding solution from entering the needle, we utilize an air pump to exert air pressure within the needle, thereby preventing the grinding solution from entering the beveled tip. Beveled needles are ready for sample loading and microinjection directly after beveling.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100 &#956;m Cell Strainer</td>
			<td>NEST</td>
			<td>258367</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3M double-sided adhesive</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td>415</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass</td>
			<td>SUTTER</td>
			<td>B100-75-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamond abrasive plate</td>
			<td>SUTTER</td>
			<td>104E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLAMING/BROWN Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td>SUTTER</td>
			<td>P-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foot air pump with pressure gauge</td>
			<td>Shenfeng</td>
			<td>SF8705D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon oil 27</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H8773</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon oil 700</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H8898</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>ECLIPSE Ts2R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microinjection pump</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>FemtoJet 4i</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>TransferMan 4r</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette Beveler</td>
			<td>SUTTER</td>
			<td>BV-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope cover glasses (18 mm x 18 mm)</td>
			<td>CITOLAS</td>
			<td>10211818C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides (25 mm x 75 mm)</td>
			<td>CITOLAS</td>
			<td>188105W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish (90 mm x 15 mm)</td>
			<td>LAIBOER</td>
			<td>4190152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photo-Flo 200</td>
			<td>Kodak</td>
			<td>1026269</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>SMZ745</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

embryo microinjection for transgenesis in drosophila

Transgenesis in Drosophila is an essential approach to studying gene function at the organism level. Embryo microinjection is a crucial step for the construction of transgenic flies. Microinjection requires some types of equipment, including a microinjector, a micromanipulator, an inverted microscope, and a stereo microscope.&#160;Plasmids isolated with a plasmid miniprep kit are qualified for microinjection. Embryos at the pre-blastoderm or syncytial blastoderm stage, where nuclei share a common cytoplasm, are subjected to microinjection. A cell strainer eases the process of dechorionating embryos. The optimal time for dechorionation and desiccation of embryos needs to be determined experimentally. To increase the efficiency of embryo microinjection, needles prepared by a puller need to be beveled by a needle grinder. In the process of grinding needles, we utilize a foot air pump with a pressure gauge to avoid the capillary effect of the needle tip. We routinely inject 120-140 embryos for each plasmid and obtain at least one transgenic line for around 85% of plasmids. This article takes the phiC31 integrase-mediated transgenesis in Drosophila as an example and&#160;presents a detailed protocol for embryo microinjection for transgenesis in Drosophila.

The tip of an injection needle is beveled by a needle grinder (Figure 1). One can bevel 50-60 needles in one hour. DNA is microinjected into the posterior of an embryo at the pre-blastoderm or syncytial blastoderm stage, where nuclei share a common cytoplasm (Figure 2A). The posterior of an embryo can be readily located based on the micropyle at the anterior of the embryo (Figure 2A). Embryos at the cellular blastoderm and gastrulat...

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Embryo Microinjection for Transgenesis in Drosophila

This article takes the phiC31 integrase-mediated transgenesis in Drosophila as an example and presents an optimized protocol for embryo microinjection,&#160;a crucial step for creating transgenic flies.

Embryo Microinjection for Transgenesis in Drosophila

Transgenesis in Drosophila is an essential approach to studying gene function at the organism level. Embryo microinjection is a crucial step for the ...

Transgenesis in Drosophila is essential for studying gene function at the organism level. Embryo microinjection is a crucial step for construction of transgenic flies. Here, we take the phiC31 integrase-mediated transgenesis in Drosophila as an example and present a detailed protocol for embryo microinjection for transgenesis in Drosophila.Injection needles whose tips are beveled by a grinder do not usually get blocked or elicit large cytoplasmic leakage. However, the grinding solution can enter the beveled tip of a needle during the grinding process and the grinding solution inside the tip does not naturally dry up quickly. Our protocol uses a foot air pump with a pressure gauge to apply air pressure to a needle while grinding its tip.This prevents the grinding solution from siphoning, thereby the grinding solution is prevented from entering the beveled tip, enabling the beveled needle to be used immediately.

embryo-microinjection-for-transgenesis-in-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

1.6K Views.  University of South China. Transgenesis in Drosophila is essential for studying gene function at the organism level. Embryo microinjection is a crucial step for construction of transgenic flies. Here, we take the phiC31 integrase-mediated transgenesis in Drosophila as an example and present a detailed protocol for embryo microinjection for transgenesis in Drosophila.Injection needles whose tips are beveled by a grinder do not usually get blocked or elicit large cytoplasmic leakage. However, the grinding solution...

Video: Author Spotlight: Optimizing Embryo Microinjection for Transgenesis in Drosophila

Laser-assisted Cytoplasmic Microinjection in Livestock Zygotes

Cytoplasmic microinjection into one-cell embryos is a very powerful technique. As an example, it enables the delivery of genome editing tools that can create genetic modifications that will be present in every cell of an adult organism. It can also be used to deliver siRNA, mRNAs or blocking antibodies to study gene function in preimplantation embryos. The conventional technique for microinjecting embryos used in rodents consists of a very thin micropipette that directly penetrates the plasma membrane when advanced into the embryo. When this technique is applied to livestock animals it usually results in low efficiency. This is mainly because in contrast to mice and rats, bovine, ovine, and porcine zygotes have a very dark cytoplasm and a highly elastic plasma membrane that makes visualization during injection and penetration of the plasma membrane hard to achieve. In this protocol, we describe a suitable microinjection method for the delivery of solutions into the cytoplasm of cattle zygotes that has proved to be successful for sheep and pig embryos as well. First, a laser is used to create a hole in the zona pellucida. Then a blunt-end glass micropipette is introduced through the hole and advanced until the tip of the needle reaches about 3/4 into the embryo. Then, the plasma membrane is broken by aspiration of cytoplasmic content inside the needle. Finally, the aspirated cytoplasmic content followed by the solution of interest is injected back into the embryonic cytoplasm. This protocol has been successfully used for the delivery of different solutions into bovine and ovine zygotes with 100% efficiency, minimal lysis, and normal blastocysts development rates.

This protocol shows how to perform cytoplasmic microinjection in farm animal zygotes. This technique can be used to deliver any solution into the one-cell embryo such as genome editing tools to generate knockout animals.

Cytoplasmic microinjection into one-cell embryos is a very powerful technique. As an example, it enables the delivery of genome editing tools that can ...

Delivery of Nucleic Acids through Embryo Microinjection in the Worldwide Agricultural Pest Insect, Ceratitis capitata

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a pest species with extremely high agricultural relevance. This is due to its reproductive behavior: females damage the external surface of fruits and vegetables when they lay eggs and the hatched larvae feed on their pulp. Wild C. capitata populations are traditionally controlled through insecticide spraying and/or eco-friendly approaches, the most successful being the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). The SIT relies on mass-rearing, radiation-based sterilization and field release of males that retain their capacity to mate but are not able to generate fertile progeny. The advent and the subsequent rapid development of biotechnological tools, together with the availability of the medfly genome sequence, has greatly boosted our understanding of the biology of this species. This favored the proliferation of new strategies for genome manipulation, which can be applied to population control.
In this context, embryo microinjection plays a dual role in expanding the toolbox for medfly control. The ability to interfere with the function of genes that regulate key biological processes, indeed, expands our understanding of the molecular machinery underlying medfly invasiveness. Furthermore, the ability to achieve germ-line transformation facilitates the production of multiple transgenic strains that can be tested for future field applications in novel SIT settings. Indeed, genetic manipulation can be used to confer desirable traits that can, for example, be used to monitor sterile male performance in the field, or that can result in early life-stage lethality. Here we describe a method to microinject nucleic acids into medfly embryos to achieve these two main goals.

Delivery of Nucleic Acids through Embryo Microinjection in the Worldwide Agricultural Pest Insect, Ceratitis capitata

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a worldwide pest of agriculture. A deeper understanding of its biology is key to control medfly populations and thus reduce economic impact. Embryo microinjection is a fundamental tool allowing both germ-line transformation and reverse genetics studies in this species.

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a pest species with extremely high agricultural relevance. ...

Microinjection of CRISPR/Cas9 Protein into Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, Embryos for Gene Editing

The complete genome of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, has been sequenced, leading to greater opportunities for studying channel catfish gene function. Gene knockout has been used to study these gene functions in vivo. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system is a powerful tool used to edit genomic DNA sequences to alter gene function. While the traditional approach has been to introduce CRISPR/Cas9 mRNA into the single cell embryos through microinjection, this can be a slow and inefficient process in catfish. Here, a detailed protocol for microinjection of channel catfish embryos with CRISPR/Cas9 protein is described. Briefly, eggs and sperm were collected and then artificial fertilization performed. Fertilized eggs were transferred to a Petri dish containing Holtfreter's solution. Injection volume was calibrated and then guide RNAs/Cas9 targeting the toll/interleukin 1 receptor domain-containing adapter molecule (TICAM 1) gene and rhamnose binding lectin (RBL) gene were microinjected into the yolk of one-cell embryos. The gene knockout was successful as indels were confirmed by DNA sequencing. The predicted protein sequence alterations due to these mutations included frameshift and truncated protein due to premature stop codons.

Microinjection of CRISPR/Cas9 Protein into Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, Embryos for Gene Editing

A simple and efficient microinjection protocol for gene editing in channel catfish embryos using the CRISPR/Cas9 system is presented. In this protocol, guide RNAs and Cas9 protein were microinjected into the yolk of one-cell embryos. This protocol has been validated by knocking out two channel catfish immune-related genes.

The complete genome of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, has been sequenced, leading to greater opportunities for studying channel catfish gene ...

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of tissues, we have developed numerous modifications and improvements to our original fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol. To facilitate throughput and cost effectiveness, all steps, from probe generation to signal detection, are performed using exon 96-well microtiter plates. Digoxygenin (DIG)-labelled antisense RNA probes are produced using either cDNA clones or genomic DNA as templates. After tissue fixation and permeabilization, probes are hybridized to transcripts of interest and then detected using a succession of anti-DIG antibody conjugated to biotin, streptavidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and fluorescently conjugated tyramide, which in the presence of HRP, produces a highly reactive intermediate that binds to electron dense regions of immediately adjacent proteins. These amplification and localization steps produce a robust and highly localized signal that facilitates both cellular and subcellular transcript localization. The protocols provided have been optimized to produce highly specific signals in a variety of tissues and developmental stages. References are also provided for additional variations that allow the simultaneous detection of multiple transcripts, or transcripts and proteins, at the same time.

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

The described RNA in situ hybridization protocol allows the detection of RNA in whole Drosophila embryos or dissected tissues. Using 96-well microtiter plates and tyramide signal amplification, transcripts can be detected at high resolution, sensitivity, and throughput, and at a relatively low cost.

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of ...

Embryo Microinjection and Transplantation Technique for Nasonia vitripennis Genome Manipulation

The jewel wasp Nasonia vitripennis has emerged as an effective model system for the study of processes including sex determination, haplo-diploid sex determination, venom synthesis, and host-symbiont interactions, among others. A major limitation of working with this organism is the lack of effective protocols to perform directed genome modifications. An important part of genome modification is delivery of editing reagents, including CRISPR/Cas9 molecules, into embryos through microinjection. While microinjection is well established in many model organisms, this technique is particularly challenging to perform in N. vitripennis primarily due to its small embryo size, and the fact that embryonic development occurs entirely within a parasitized blowfly pupa. The following procedure overcomes these significant challenges while demonstrating a streamlined, visual procedure for effectively removing wasp embryos from parasitized host pupae, microinjecting them, and carefully transplanting them back into the host for continuation and completion of development. This protocol will strongly enhance the capability of research groups to perform advanced genome modifications in this organism.

Embryo Microinjection and Transplantation Technique for Nasonia vitripennis Genome Manipulation

Microinjection of Nasonia vitripennis embryos is an essential method for generating heritable genome modifications. Described here is a detailed procedure for microinjection and transplantation of Nasonia vitripennis embryos, which will greatly facilitate future genome manipulation in this organism.

The jewel wasp Nasonia vitripennis has emerged as an effective model system for the study of processes including sex determination, haplo-diploid sex ...

Embryo Microinjection Techniques for Efficient Site-Specific Mutagenesis in Culex quinquefasciatus

Culex quinquefasciatus is a vector of a diverse range of vector-borne diseases such as avian malaria, West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis, lymphatic filariasis, and Saint Louis encephalitis. Notably, avian malaria has played a major role in the extinction of numerous endemic island bird species, while WNV has become an important vector-borne disease in the United States. To gain further insight into C. quinquefasciatus biology and expand their genetic control toolbox, we need to develop more efficient and affordable methods for genome engineering in this species. However, some biological traits unique to Culex mosquitoes, particularly their egg rafts, have made it difficult to perform microinjection procedures required for genome engineering. To address these challenges, we have developed an optimized embryo microinjection protocol that focuses on mitigating the technical obstacles associated with the unique characteristics of Culex mosquitoes. These procedures demonstrate optimized methods for egg collection, egg raft separation and other handling procedures essential for successful microinjection in C. quinquefasciatus. When coupled with the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology, these procedures allow us to achieve site-specific, efficient and heritable germline mutations, which are required to perform advanced genome engineering and develop genetic control technologies in this important, but currently understudied, disease vector.

Embryo Microinjection Techniques for Efficient Site-Specific Mutagenesis in Culex quinquefasciatus

This protocol describes microinjection procedures for Culex quinquefasciatus embryos that are optimized to work with CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing tools. This technique can efficiently generate site-specific, heritable, germline mutations that can be used for building genetic technologies in this understudied disease vector.

Culex quinquefasciatus is a vector of a diverse range of vector-borne diseases such as avian malaria, West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis, ...

Sand Fly (Phlebotomus papatasi) Embryo Microinjection for CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis

Sand flies are the natural vectors for Leishmania species, protozoan parasites producing a broad spectrum of symptoms ranging from cutaneous lesions to visceral pathology. Deciphering the nature of the vector/parasite interactions is of primary importance for better understanding of Leishmania transmission to their hosts. Among the parameters controlling the sand fly vector competence (i.e. their ability to carry and transmit pathogens), parameters intrinsic to these insects were shown to play a key role. Insect immune response, for example, impacts sand fly vector competence to Leishmania. The study of such parameters has been limited by the lack of methods of gene expression modification adapted for use in these non-model organisms. Gene downregulation by small interfering RNA (siRNA) is possible, but in addition to being technically challenging, the silencing leads to only a partial loss of function, which cannot be transmitted from generation to generation. Targeted mutagenesis by CRISPR/Cas9 technology was recently adapted to the Phlebotomus papatasi sand fly. This technique leads to the generation of transmissible mutations in a specifically chosen locus, allowing to study the genes of interest. The CRISPR/Cas9 system relies on the induction of targeted double-strand DNA breaks, later repaired by either Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) or by Homology Driven Repair (HDR). NHEJ consists of a simple closure of the break and frequently leads to small insertion/deletion events. In contrast, HDR uses the presence of a donor DNA molecule sharing homology with the target DNA as a template for repair. Here, we present a sand fly embryo microinjection method for targeted mutagenesis by CRISPR/Cas9 using NHEJ, which is the only genome modification technique adapted to sand fly vectors to date.

Sand Fly Phlebotomus papatasi Embryo Microinjection for CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis

This protocol details the steps of CRISPR/Cas9 targeted mutagenesis in sand flies: embryo collection, injection, insect rearing, and identification as well as selection of mutations of interest.

Sand flies are the natural vectors for Leishmania species, protozoan parasites producing a broad spectrum of symptoms ranging from cutaneous lesions to ...

Embryo Injections for CRISPR-Mediated Mutagenesis in the Ant Harpegnathos saltator

The unique traits of eusocial insects, such as social behavior and reproductive division of labor, are controlled by their genetic system. To address how genes regulate social traits, we have developed mutant ants via delivery of CRISPR complex into young embryos during their syncytial stage. Here, we provide a protocol of CRISPR-mediated mutagenesis in Harpegnathos saltator, a ponerine ant species that displays striking phenotypic plasticity. H. saltator ants are readily reared in a laboratory setting. Embryos are collected for microinjection with Cas9 proteins and in vitro synthesized small guide RNAs (sgRNAs) using home-made quartz needles. Post-injection embryos are reared outside the colony. Following emergence of the first larva, all embryos and larvae are transported to a nest box with a few nursing workers for further development. This protocol is suitable for inducing mutagenesis for analysis of caste-specific physiology and social behavior in ants, but may also be applied to a broader spectrum of hymenopterans and other insects.

Embryo Injections for CRISPR-Mediated Mutagenesis in the Ant Harpegnathos saltator

Many characteristics of insect eusociality rely on within-colony communication and division of labor. Genetic manipulation of key regulatory genes in ant embryos via microinjection and CRISPR-mediated mutagenesis provides insights into the nature of altruistic behavior in eusocial insects.

The unique traits of eusocial insects, such as social behavior and reproductive division of labor, are controlled by their genetic system. To address how ...

Microinjection Method for Anopheles gambiae Embryos

Embryo microinjection techniques are essential for many molecular and genetic studies of insect species. They provide a means to introduce exogenous DNA fragments encoding genes of interest as well as favorable traits into the insect germline in a stable and heritable manner. The resulting transgenic strains can be studied for phenotypic changes resulting from the expression of the integrated DNA to answer basic questions or used in practical applications. Although the technology is straightforward, it requires of the investigator patience and practice to achieve a level of skill that maximizes efficiency. Shown here is a method for microinjection of embryos of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. The objective is to deliver by microinjection exogenous DNA to the embryo so that it can be taken up in the developing germline (pole) cells. Expression from the injected DNA of transposases, integrases, recombinases, or other nucleases (for example CRISPR-associated proteins, Cas) can trigger events that lead to its covalent insertion into chromosomes. Transgenic An. gambiae generated from these technologies have been used for basic studies of immune system components, genes involved in blood-feeding, and elements of the olfactory system. In addition, these techniques have been used to produce An. gambiae strains with traits that may help control the transmission of malaria parasites.

Microinjection Method for Anopheles gambiae Embryos

Microinjection techniques are essential to introduce exogenous genes into the genomes of mosquitoes. This protocol explains a method used by the James laboratory to microinject DNA constructs into Anopheles gambiae embryos to generate transformed mosquitoes.

Embryo microinjection techniques are essential for many molecular and genetic studies of insect species. They provide a means to introduce exogenous DNA ...

Cryopreservation of PGCs for Long-Term Preservation of Drosophila Strains

Primordial Germ Cell Cryopreservation and Revival of Drosophila Strains

Drosophila strains must be maintained by the frequent transfer of adult flies to new vials. This carries a danger of mutational deterioration and phenotypic changes. Development of an alternative method for long-term preservation without such changes is therefore imperative. Despite previous successful attempts, cryopreservation of Drosophila embryos is still not of practical use because of low reproducibility. Here, we describe a protocol for primordial germ cell (PGC) cryopreservation and strain revival via transplantation of cryopreserved PGCs into agametic Drosophila melanogaster (D. melanogaster) host embryos. PGCs are highly permeable to cryoprotective agents (CPAs), and developmental and morphological variation among strains is less problematic than in embryo cryopreservation. In this method, PGCs are collected from approximately 30 donor embryos, loaded into a needle after CPA treatment, and then cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. To produce donor-derived gametes, the cryopreserved PGCs in a needle are thawed and then deposited into approximately 15&#160;agametic host embryos. A frequency of at least 15% fertile flies was achieved with this protocol, and the number of progeny per fertile couple was always more than enough to revive the original strain (the average progeny number being 77.2 &#177; 7.1), indicating the ability of cryopreserved PGCs to become germline stem cells. The average number of fertile flies per needle was 1.1 &#177; 0.2, and 9 out of 26 needles produced two or more fertile progeny. It was found that 11 needles are enough to produce 6 or more progeny, in which at least one female and one male are likely included. The agametic host makes it possible to revive the strain quickly by simply crossing newly emerged female and male flies. In addition, PGCs have the potential to be used in genetic engineering applications, such as genome editing.

Author Spotlight: PGC Cryopreservation &#8211; An Alternative Approach Towards Long-Term Preservation of Drosophila Strains 

A long-term preservation method for Drosophila strains as an alternative to the frequent transfer of adult flies to fresh food vials is highly desirable. This protocol describes the cryopreservation of Drosophila primordial germ cells and strain revival via their transplantation to agametic host embryos.