作者想感谢他持续的技术支持Ikiel Ptito。 NSERC授予到MP。

第1部分：前处理的组织<ol><li>组织应多聚甲醛，戊二醛，或福尔马林灌注。这可以通过标准transcardial，通常用于收获其他器官灌注。在本研究的主题是深刻的盐酸氯胺酮（10毫克/公斤，IM）与戊巴比妥钠（25毫克/公斤，四）过量安乐死，镇静剂和灌注用0​​.1 M PBS transcardially其次，直到完全exsanguinated.This在PBS的4％多聚甲醛为5分钟（约1升）的解决方案。 </li></ol>第2部分：立体定向阻断<ol><li>放到头部的立体框架之前需要采取Horsley-Clarke/interaural平面零点的坐标。这是两耳之间的理论中点。要衡量这架飞机，同样需要在设备安装耳棒，然后放置在立体机械臂手术刀刀片和测量耳棒之间的中点。确定在何处块根据研究需要的组织，这是重要的的。一旦完成，需要准备的立体定位仪固定颅骨。 </li><li>为了放到头部的立体框架，下颚骨rongeurs和手术刀将要拆除。此外，皮肤，肌肉和结缔组织，应予删除，以揭露的头骨。一旦从头骨中删除的结缔组织，暴露大脑，由小打小闹的头盖骨（枕骨的表格部分以及顶叶，广告正面骨头）。在本实验的一部分的头盖骨被删除一切准备就绪。要小心不要完全取出颞骨，因为耳道将需要原封不动地放到头部的立体框架。从暴露的大脑，其余的硬脑膜问题应予删除。头骨现在已经准备好要放置到立体框架。 </li><li>以同样的方式，在其中一个将执行立体定向手术，调整眼，上腭和耳棒，头牢固地固定在立体定位仪。放置在预定的前/后（A / P）坐标的立体机械手和大脑的侧面移动操纵杆。慢慢地降低刀片进入大脑，完全提高大脑的刀片，然后将内侧，并再次降低刀片。重复这两个步骤，直到刀片已经达到了相反的半球外侧面。这就完成了第一个冠状块。对于后续的冠状块移动机械臂1厘米的A / P轴和重复，直到整个大脑已被封锁。 </li></ol>第3部分：删除从头骨的大脑<ol><li>从立体框架中删除的头部和手掌按住暴露大脑。尝试安全的大脑，轻轻地放在手掌溺爱的大脑和你的小指横跨额叶，这最大限度地减少运动的大脑在颅骨。为了防止大脑软脑膜表面的干燥，放置一块的PBS挫伤整个大脑的纱布。按住头，坚决的头骨和芯片的距离，沿脊柱其余枕叶和颞骨。这暴露了大脑的基础和横向方面。最后删除任何剩余的额骨和鼻骨，这将允许访问的嗅球。重要的是去除额骨去年，因为当你删除颅底的大脑会轻微移动和额叶可以成为泉骨的锯齿状边缘损坏。切去，并删除其余的硬脑膜问题。小心地抬起大脑前，大脑和头骨的脑下滑动的手术刀。 </li></ol>第4部分：测量<ol><li>有一些有用的测量，可冻结前。例如，A / P的大脑卡尺轴。此外，特定的密度可以通过称重大脑进行测量，测量水在毕业的位移量（表1），然后除以重量缸的位移量。 </li></ol>第5部分：完成阻塞脑。 <ol><li>一般来说，当手术刀刀片插入到大脑，它是不是足够长，完全穿透完整的背腹脑的程度。大脑一旦被删除，并获得总测量，采取组织切片刀片和完成阻挡的大脑，通过大脑的腹侧方（图2）。 </li><li>冻结块之前，有必要cryoprotect分级PBS缓冲的蔗糖溶液中的组织（10，20，和30％）保持在4˚C直到在脑汇。通常需要孵育过夜，10％的2-3天，20％和块下沉到容器底部的30％额外的3-5天。每天变化的TH建议E 30％的蔗糖溶液。 </li></ol>第6部分：代表结果有总值可一旦大脑已经删除从头骨形态测量。这些措施包括：A / P的长度，重量，密度（见表1）。我们一般块6-7块测量1厘米（图1）大脑。每一块然后拍照（图2），可以根据研究需要进一步解剖或准备冻结分级蔗糖溶液。 <table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 主题 </td><td> A / P的长度 （毫米） </td><td> 重量 （克） </td><td> 水驱 （ML） </td><td> 具体密度 （克/毫升） </td></tr><tr><td> O2303 - 2 - 1 - 1 </td><td> 64.3 </td><td> 28.1 </td><td> 24 </td><td> 1.171 </td></tr><tr><td> O5180 - 1 </td><td> 71.3 </td><td> 38.7 </td><td> 34 </td><td> 1.138 </td></tr><tr><td> O2708 - 3 - 1 </td><td> 62.8 </td><td> 28.7 </td><td> 26 </td><td> 1.104 </td></tr><tr><td> O9184 - 4 - 2 </td><td> 65.3 </td><td> 29.5 </td><td> 24 </td><td> 1.229 </td></tr><tr><td> N459 - 1 - 14 - 2 </td><td> 68.2 </td><td> 31.6 </td><td> 26 </td><td> 1.215 </td></tr><tr><td>平均</td><td> 66.38 </td><td> 31.32 </td><td> 26.8 </td><td> 1.171 </td></tr><tr><td>标准差</td><td> 3.38 </td><td> 4.33 </td><td> 4.17 </td><td> 0.052 </td></tr></tbody></table> 表1。总值的5个月大的Vervets右半球的形态学测量<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1259/1259fig1.jpg" alt="图1" /> <img src="/files/ftp_upload/1259/1259fig2.jpg" alt="图1.5" /> 图1。用于阻塞脑冠状平面示意图，这是一个外部的成人vervet脑例子。阻塞过程的例子。这里的垂直线之间的间距1cm处，通常生产从每个半球的冠状块。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/1259/1259fig3.jpg" alt="图2" /> 图2。在立体空间中的脑组织块，每块产量在50μm的约200节。有了这个抽样计划将超过1200部分通过皮层和小脑额外的400-500在冠状面切片。

<ol>
	<li>Gallagher, M., Rapp, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+animal+models+to+study+the+effects+of+aging+on+cognition.+Annu+Rev+Psychol+48.">The use of animal models to study the effects of aging on cognition. Annu Rev Psychol 48.</a> , 339-370 (1997).</li><li>Clancy, B., Darlington, R., Finlay, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Translating+developmental+time+across+mammalian+species.">Translating developmental time across mammalian species.</a> Neuroscience. 105, 7-17 (2001).</li><li>Nowakowski, R. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

圣基茨vervet（Chlorocebus aethiops sabeus）是旧世界的灵长类动物与人类类似的模式和皮层和皮层下的大脑发育率。该物种已被用来模拟复杂的人类行为障碍，如焦虑行为8，大脑半球切除术，高血压，帕金森氏病10 Alzhemier 的疾病11， 和酗酒12。最近，该物种已被用于研究自然产前乙醇暴露的神经解剖学的影响。怀孕vervets被允许在孕晚期相当于3-5每周四次的标准饮...

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dissecting the non-human primate brain in stereotaxic space

使用非人类灵长类动物在人类发育和衰老过程的认识提供了一个优秀的翻译模式<sup&gt; 1-6</sup&gt;。此外，使用非人类灵长类动物最近提供的机会，自然模型复杂的精神疾病，如酗酒<sup&gt; 7</sup&gt;。在这里，我们描述了一种阻断冠状面vervet猴子大脑的技术（<em&gt; Chlorocebus aethiops sabeus</em&gt;）在立体空间中的完整的头骨。这里介绍的方法提供了一个标准节块之间和科目和块之间的最小化的部分路段平面。切片的组织块在冠状面，也有利于感兴趣的领域划分。因为单个半球的vervet猴子产量1200多节，在50μm的切片时，这种方法提供了管理大小的块。此外，通过阻断大脑切成1cm块，它有利于普及率为cyroprotection蔗糖，并允许在一个标准的低温​​恒温器切片块。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dissecting the Non-human Primate Brain in Stereotaxic Space at JoVE.com

Dissecting the Non-human Primate Brain in Stereotaxic Space

非人类灵长类动物是一种重要的翻译物种为我们理解大脑的正常处理。在人体正常和病理条件下的灵长类动物的大脑解剖组织可以提供重要的见解。

剖析在非人类灵长类动物脑立体定向空间

The use of non-human primates provides an excellent translational model for our understanding of developmental and aging processes in humans1-6. In ...

dissecting-the-non-human-primate-brain-in-stereotaxic-space

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.0K 次观看.  University of Montreal. 非人类灵长类动物是一种重要的翻译物种为我们理解大脑的正常处理。在人体正常和病理条件下的灵长类动物的大脑解剖组织可以提供重要的见解。

视频: Dissecting the Non-human Primate Brain in Stereotaxic Space

Single Cell Electroporation in vivo within the Intact Developing Brain

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. The distinct advantage of this technique is that experimental manipulations may be performed on individual cells while leaving the surrounding tissue unaltered, thereby distinguishing cell-autonomous effects from those resulting from global treatments. When combined with advanced in vivo imaging techniques, SCE of fluorescent markers permits direct visualization of cellular morphology, cell growth, and intracellular events over timescales ranging from seconds to days. While this technique is used in a variety of in vivo and ex vivo preparations, we have optimized this technique for use in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. In this video article, we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the albino Xenopus tadpole. We also discuss methods to optimize yield, and show examples of live two-photon fluorescence imaging of neurons fluorescently labeled by SCE.

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. Here we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the Xenopus laevis tadpole.

在体内的单细胞电穿孔内完整的大脑发育

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact ...

科研

生物学

Survivable Stereotaxic Surgery in Rodents 

The ability to measure extracellular basal levels of neurotransmitters in the brain of awake animals allows for the determination of effects of different systemic challenges (pharmacological or physiological) to the CNS. For example, one can directly measure how the animal's midbrain dopamine projections respond to dopamine-releasing drugs like d-amphetamine or natural stimuli like food. In this video, we show you how to implant guide cannulas targeting specific sites in the rat brain, how to insert and implant a microdialysis probe and how to use high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) to measure extracellular levels of oxidizable neurotransmitters and metabolites. Local precise introduction of drugs through the microdialysis probe allows for refined work on site specificity in a compound s mechanism of action. This technique has excellent anatomical and chemical resolution but only modest time resolution as microdialysis samples are usually processed every 20-30 minutes to ensure detectable neurotransmitter levels. Complementary ex vivo tools (i.e., slice and cell culture electrophysiology) can assist with monitoring real-time neurotransmission.

Survivable Stereotaxic Surgery in Rodents

The monitoring of extracellular neurotransmitter levels in distinct brain regions of freely moving animals offers insights on the link between neurotransmitter release and behavior. In vivo microdialysis coupled with electrochemical detection provides excellent anatomical and chemical resolution; and information on how basal neurotransmission is altered by pharmacological or physiological manipulations.

在啮齿类动物的存活立体定向手术

The ability to measure extracellular basal levels of neurotransmitters in the brain of awake animals allows for the determination of effects of different ...

Dissecting and Recording from The C. Elegans Neuromuscular Junction

Neurotransmission is the process by which neurons transfer information via chemical signals to their post-synaptic targets, on a rapid time scale. This complex process requires the coordinated activity of many pre- and post-synaptic proteins to ensure appropriate synaptic connectivity, conduction of electrical signals, targeting and priming of secretory vesicles, calcium sensing, vesicle fusion, localization and function of postsynaptic receptors and finally, recycling mechanisms. As neuroscientists it is our goal to elucidate which proteins function in each of these steps and understand their mechanisms of action. Electrophysiological recordings from synapses provide a quantifiable read out of the underlying electrical events that occur during synaptic transmission. By combining this technique with the powerful array of molecular and genetic tools available to manipulate synaptic proteins in C. elegans, we can analyze the resulting functional changes in synaptic transmission. 
The C. elegans NMJs formed between motor neurons and body wall muscles control locomotion, therefore, mutants with uncoordinated locomotory phenotypes (known as unc s) often perturb synaptic transmission at these synapses 1. Since unc mutants are maintained on a rich supply of a bacterial food source, they remain viable as long as they retain some pharyngeal pumping ability to ingest food. This, together with the fact that C. elegans exist as hermaphrodites, allows them to pass on mutant progeny without the need for elaborate mating behaviors. These attributes, coupled with our recent ability to record from the worms NMJs 2,3,7 make this an excellent model organism in which to address precisely how unc mutants impact neurotransmission. 
The dissection method involves immobilizing adult worms using a cyanoacrylic glue in order to make an incision in the worm cuticle exposing the NMJs. Since C. elegans adults are only 1 mm in length the dissection is performed with the use of a dissecting microscope and requires excellent hand-eye coordination. NMJ recordings are made by whole-cell voltage clamping individual body wall muscle cells and neurotransmitter release can be evoked using a variety of stimulation protocols including electrical stimulation, light-activated channel-rhodopsin-mediated depolarization 4 and hyperosmotic saline, all of which will be briefly described.

Application of electrophysiology to accessible synapses provides a quantifiable measure of synaptic activity, useful in analyzing synaptic mutants. This article describes a dissection method used to expose the neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and briefly discusses some of the uses to which this preparation can be applied.

线虫神经肌肉交界处的解剖和录制

Neurotransmission is the process by which neurons transfer information via chemical signals to their post-synaptic targets, on a rapid time scale.   This ...

The Gateway to the Brain: Dissecting the Primate Eye

The visual system in humans is considered the gateway to the world and plays a principal role in the plethora of sensory, perceptual and cognitive processes. It is therefore not surprising that quality of vision is tied to quality of life . Despite widespread clinical and basic research surrounding the causes of visual disorders, many forms of visual impairments, such as retinitis pigmentosa and macular degeneration, lack effective treatments. Non-human primates have the closest general features of eye development to that of humans. Not only do they have a similar vascular anatomy, but amongst other mammals, primates have the unique characteristic of having a region in the temporal retina specialized for high visual acuity, the fovea1. Here we describe a general technique for dissecting the primate retina to provide tissue for retinal histology, immunohistochemistry, laser capture microdissection, as well as light and electron microscopy. With the extended use of the non-human primate as a translational model, our hope is that improved understanding of the retina will provide insights into effective approaches towards attenuating or reversing the negative impact of visual disorders on the quality of life of affected individuals.

The non-human primate is an important translational species for our understanding of development and aging. The anatomical organization of the primate retina may provide important insights into normal and pathological conditions in humans.

到大脑的门户：剖析灵长类动物的眼睛

The visual system in humans is considered the  gateway  to the world and plays a principal role in the plethora of sensory, perceptual and cognitive ...

Knowing What Counts: Unbiased Stereology in the Non-human Primate Brain

The non-human primate is an important translational species for understanding the normal function and disease processes of the human brain. Unbiased stereology, the method accepted as state-of-the-art for quantification of biological objects in tissue sections2, generates reliable structural data for biological features in the mammalian brain3. The key components of the approach are unbiased (systematic-random) sampling of anatomically defined structures (reference spaces), combined with quantification of cell numbers and size, fiber and capillary lengths, surface areas, regional volumes and spatial distributions of biological objects within the reference space4. Among the advantages of these stereological approaches over previous methods is the avoidance of all known sources of systematic (non-random) error arising from faulty assumptions and non-verifiable models. This study documents a biological application of computerized stereology to estimate the total neuronal population in the frontal cortex of the vervet monkey brain (Chlorocebus aethiops sabeus), with assistance from two commercially available stereology programs, BioQuant Life Sciences and Stereologer (Figure 1). In addition to contrast and comparison of results from both the BioQuant and Stereologer systems, this study provides a detailed protocol for the Stereologer system.

The anatomical organization of the primate brain can provide important insights into normal and pathological conditions in humans. Unbiased stereology is a method for accurately and efficiently estimating the total neuron number (or other cell type) in a given reference space1.

知道重要的：无偏体视学在非人类灵长类动物的脑

The non-human primate is an important translational species for understanding the normal function and disease processes of the human brain. Unbiased ...

Trajectory Data Analyses for Pedestrian Space-time Activity Study

It is well recognized that human movement in the spatial and temporal dimensions has direct influence on disease transmission1-3. An infectious disease typically spreads via contact between infected and susceptible individuals in their overlapped activity spaces. Therefore, daily mobility-activity information can be used as an indicator to measure exposures to risk factors of infection. However, a major difficulty and thus the reason for paucity of studies of infectious disease transmission at the micro scale arise from the lack of detailed individual mobility data. Previously in transportation and tourism research detailed space-time activity data often relied on the time-space diary technique, which requires subjects to actively record their activities in time and space. This is highly demanding for the participants and collaboration from the participants greatly affects the quality of data4.
Modern technologies such as GPS and mobile communications have made possible the automatic collection of trajectory data. The data collected, however, is not ideal for modeling human space-time activities, limited by the accuracies of existing devices. There is also no readily available tool for efficient processing of the data for human behavior study. We present here a suite of methods and an integrated ArcGIS desktop-based visual interface for the pre-processing and spatiotemporal analyses of trajectory data. We provide examples of how such processing may be used to model human space-time activities, especially with error-rich pedestrian trajectory data, that could be useful in public health studies such as infectious disease transmission modeling.
The procedure presented includes pre-processing, trajectory segmentation, activity space characterization, density estimation and visualization, and a few other exploratory analysis methods. Pre-processing is the cleaning of noisy raw trajectory data. We introduce an interactive visual pre-processing interface as well as an automatic module. Trajectory segmentation5 involves the identification of indoor and outdoor parts from pre-processed space-time tracks. Again, both interactive visual segmentation and automatic segmentation are supported. Segmented space-time tracks are then analyzed to derive characteristics of one's activity space such as activity radius etc. Density estimation and visualization are used to examine large amount of trajectory data to model hot spots and interactions. We demonstrate both density surface mapping6 and density volume rendering7. We also include a couple of other exploratory data analyses (EDA) and visualizations tools, such as Google Earth animation support and connection analysis. The suite of analytical as well as visual methods presented in this paper may be applied to any trajectory data for space-time activity studies.

A suite of spatiotemporal processing methods are presented to analyze human trajectory data, such as that collected using a GPS device, for the purpose of modeling pedestrian space-time activities.

轨迹数据分析行人时空活性研究

It is well recognized that human movement in the  spatial and temporal dimensions has direct influence on disease transmission1-3.  An infectious disease ...

Physiology Lab Demonstration: Glomerular Filtration Rate in a Rat

Measurements of glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and the fractional excretion of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are critical in assessing renal function in health and disease. GFR is measured as the steady state renal clearance of inulin which is filtered at the glomerulus, but not secreted or reabsorbed along the nephron. The fractional excretion of Na and K can be determined from the concentration of Na and K in plasma and urine. The renal clearance of inulin can be demonstrated in an anesthetized animal which has catheters in the femoral artery, femoral vein and bladder. The equipment and supplies used for this procedure are those commonly available in a research core facility, and thus makes this procedure a practical means for measuring renal function. The purpose of this video is to demonstrate the procedures required to perform a lab demonstration in which renal function is assessed before and after a diuretic drug. The presented technique can be utilized to assess renal function in rat models of renal disease.

The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate the principles and techniques for measuring and calculating glomerular filtration rate, urine flow rate, and excretion of sodium and potassium in a rat. This demonstration can be used to provide students with an overall conceptual understanding of how to measure renal function.

生理学实验室演示:肾小球滤过率在一个老鼠

Measurements of glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and the fractional excretion of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are critical in assessing renal function ...

Sampling Blood from the Lateral Tail Vein of the Rat

Blood samples are commonly obtained in many experimental contexts to measure targets of interest, including hormones, immune factors, growth factors, proteins, and glucose, yet the composition of the blood is dynamically regulated and easily perturbed. One factor that can change the blood composition is the stress response triggered by the sampling procedure, which can contribute to variability in the measures of interest. Here we describe a procedure for blood sampling from the lateral tail vein in the rat. This procedure offers significant advantages over other more commonly used techniques. It permits rapid sampling with minimal pain or invasiveness, without anesthesia or analgesia. Additionally, it can be used to obtain large volume samples (upwards of 1 ml in some rats), and it may be used repeatedly across experimental days. By minimizing the stress response and pain resulting from blood sampling, measures can more accurately reflect the true basal state of the animal, with minimal influence from the sampling procedure itself.

Blood samples are useful for assessing biomarkers of physiological states or disease in vivo. Here we describe the methodology to sample blood from the lateral tail vein in the rat. This method provides rapid samples with minimal pain and invasiveness.

从大鼠的侧尾静脉血液取样

Blood samples are commonly obtained in many experimental contexts to measure targets of interest, including hormones, immune factors, growth factors, ...

Micropuncture of Bowman's Space in Mice Facilitated by 2 Photon Microscopy

Renal micropuncture and renal 2-photon imaging are seminal techniques in renal physiology. However, micropuncture is limited by dependence on conventional microscopy to surface nephron features, and 2-photon studies are limited in that interventions can only be assessed at the organ, rather than the nephron level. In particular, micropuncture studies of the glomeruli of mice have been challenged by the paucity of surface glomeruli in mice. To address this limitation in order to pursue studies of aspirate from Bowman&#39;s space in mouse physiologic models, we developed 2-photon glomerular micropuncture. We present a novel surgical preparation that allows lateral access to the kidney while preserving the required vertical imaging column for 2-photon microscopy. Administration of high molecular weight fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran is used to render the renal vasculature and therefore glomeruli visible for 2-photon imaging. A quantum dot-coated pipette is then introduced under stereotactic guidance to a glomerulus selected from the several to many which may be visualized within the imaging window. In this protocol, we provide details of the preparation, materials, and methods necessary to carry out the procedure. This technique facilitates previously-impossible physiologic study of the kidney, including recovery of filtrate from Bowman&#39;s space and all segments of the nephron within the imaging depth limit, about 100 &#181;m below the renal capsule. Pressure, charge and flow may all be measured using the introduced pipette. Here, we provide representative data from liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry performed on aspirate from Bowman&#39;s space. We expect this technique to have wide applicability in renal physiologic investigation.

We present use of 2-photon microscopy to place a micropipette within Bowman&#39;s urinary space in mice, combining 2 foundational techniques of renal physiology. Use of 2-photon microscopy overcomes critical limitations of conventional microscopy for micropuncture renal physiology studies.

微穿刺2光子显微镜辅助小鼠鲍曼空间的研究

Renal micropuncture and renal 2-photon imaging are seminal techniques in renal physiology. However, micropuncture is limited by dependence on conventional ...

Reverse Dissection and DiceCT Reveal Otherwise Hidden Data in the Evolution of the Primate Face

Facial expressions, or facial displays, of social or emotional intent are produced by many mammalian taxa as a means of visually communicating with conspecifics at a close range. These displays are achieved by contraction of the mimetic muscles, which are skeletal muscle attached to the dermis of the face. Reverse dissection, removing the full facial mask from the skull and approaching mimetic muscles in reverse, is an effective but destructive way of revealing the morphology of mimetic muscles but it is destructive. DiceCT is a novel mechanism for visualizing skeletal muscles, including mimetic muscles, and isolating individual muscle fascicles for quantitative measurement. Additionally, DiceCT provides a non-destructive mechanism for visualizing muscles. The combined techniques of reverse dissection and DiceCT can be used to assess the evolutionary morphology of mimetic musculature as well as potential contraction strength and velocity in these muscles. This study further demonstrates that DiceCT can be used to accurately and reliably visualize mimetic muscles as well as reverse dissection and provide a non-destructive method for sampling mimetic muscles.

Facial expressions are a mode of visual communication produced by mimetic muscles. Here, we present protocols for the novel techniques of reverse dissection and DiceCT to fully visualize and assess mimetic muscles. These combined techniques can examine both morphological and physiological aspects of mimetic musculature to determine functional aspects.

灵长类动物脸演变过程中的反向解剖与 dicect 显示其他隐藏数据

Facial expressions, or facial displays, of social or emotional intent are produced by many mammalian taxa as a means of visually communicating with ...