这项工作是由瑞士国家科学基金会（CE:PBEZP3 - 131154）的赠款支持

1。除招聘<ol><li>受试者招募通过一个在线数据库，其中包含了约3000名学生志愿者的列表 5 。从这个名单中，我们只接触以前没有类似的研究，参加的妇女，并问他们是否是有兴趣参与这项研究。我们邀请的神经生理效应的时间当然专门的妇女以及妇女 6,7成立后急性睾酮管理。对于男人来说，这当然是还没有很好地理解。 </li><li>有兴趣的科目，然后筛选在接受电话采访时，排除药物的摄入量，躯体疾病，服用荷尔蒙避孕药或任何神经或精神疾病。 </li><li>由于内源性性激素水平低而稳定的往往是在女性月经周期的第一部分，我们进行第二次电话采访时，获得稳定和持续时间周期的信息。的主题，然后邀请来实验，从她们的月经周期的开始之日起10日内。他们进一步指示弃权实验前24小时，从酒精或咖啡因的摄入量和吸烟。 </li><li>邀请科目组的平均规模12的经济学实证研究学院实验实验室，在瑞士苏黎世。 </li></ol> 2。实验过程<ol><li>所有会议在下午1时开始控制类固醇激素水平的昼夜变化。 </li><li>我们的实验，以排除妊娠开始前进行妊娠检查。 </li><li>在实验中，睾酮和视觉上没有区别的安慰剂的准备是随机分布的十二个工作站标志着在实验室里，12个由人谁不是在参与​​实验，否则。 </li><li>在实验室的入口处，每十二个科目绘制一张卡上有一个隐蔽的。数字范围从一到十二个月。 </li><li>科目采取的实验室房间，这是赋予共有36个计算机工作场所。科目的指示去寻找和标记具有相同数目的工作场所，卡上表示，他们在入口处提请坐下。 </li><li>所有受试者阅读并签署知情同意书。 </li><li>我们衡量基线唾液睾酮和皮质醇的含量，使用唾液标本采集IBL的SaliCaps套件（IBL的汉堡，汉堡，德国）。科目要求转移到1毫升唾液的试管中，然后立即冻结在-80 ° C。 </li><li>科目要求，考虑到他们口中舌下药片，咀嚼它，并保持一分钟解体物质在他们的嘴。为了达到最大的接触睾酮的HP -β- CD包合物与口腔粘膜，科目的指示，使他们的舌头盘旋动作。一分钟后，剩余的物质是用100毫升的水吞没。 </li><li>紧随物质的管理，受试者需要填写不同的问卷。我们衡量多维情绪问卷（MDBF）8和焦虑状态-特质焦虑量 ​​表和状态-特质愤怒的表情库存10愤怒的特征和状态，情绪和觉醒。这些问卷科目"附带的情绪，愤怒和焦虑状态的任何可能产生的影响以及个性特征的控制的目的。此外，受试者完成的90项症状自评量表验证德语版（修订版）11来衡量他们的心理健康。从数据分析，排除那些有非常高的分数（两个标准差高于平均值，说明心理健康不佳）的。 由于建立了四个小时的时间滞后行为的影响后，在年轻，健康的女性 6,7 0.5毫克睾酮舌下应用程序的外观，一个漫长的等待期是我们学习的一个不可分割的一部分。在此期间，我们的科目都必须留在实验室里，并保持自己悄悄占领。这是为了确保在实验室外的社会交往，没有发生这可能会引起混淆的措施。 </li></ol> 3。最后通牒博弈<ol><li>的主题，然后收到了他们的角色在游戏中的指示，并在纸上支付规则，并要求他们读。我们检查他们的收益结构的理解，让他们在年底的指示完成几个控制问题。 </li><li>然后，我们口头总结实验过程。这样做的原因是，以确保受试者知道，其他人有关的游戏的结构相同的信息，以及如何回报ARË确定，这也被称为"共同知识"。摘要如下: </li><li>在这个实验中，"最后通牒博弈是发挥了两种类型的球员，投保人和响应，同意划分10个货币单位（毛里求斯）。投保人可以决定10亩的分布。提议者可以提供5，3，2，或0亩提出响应响应，然后有来无论是接受或拒绝这项建议，如果响应者接受了投保人的要约，拟议拨款将被实施，并支付。然而，响应者也可以拒绝的建议，在这种情况下，任何一方赢得什么"。 </li><li>我们保证之间提供明确分离，公平（5亩），并提供被视为不公平（3，2 0亩）限制为5提供，3，2 0亩。科目和匿名随机分配给投保人或响应者的作用，然后在这个角色保持整个实验。每个投保人亩分布的三个命题，而与随机选择的三种不同的互动合作伙伴的配对。没有一双科目交互不止一次。他们从来没有学会与他们在实验中匹配的人的身份。提议者没有收到有关的应答者的选择的反馈意见，直到实验结束。在最后通牒博弈的所有决定实施zTree软件，呈现在计算机屏幕上12。 </li><li>因为睾丸激素是在大众媒体讨论最广泛的激素之一，它是可能的科目有预制信仰的影响13（真或假）。此外，由于伦理问题需要研究人员告知，他们将接受安慰剂或睾酮事先了解有关睾酮可能污染的行为可能造成的影响睾酮的科目。因此，我们认为分组评估所要求的科目，他们是否认为他们已经收到了睾丸激素或安慰剂丸。 </li><li>感知分组记录在决赛中与一些社会经济特征的问卷。在过去的调查问卷中，我们准备科目的付款。 </li></ol> 4。除付款<ol><li>参与实验的主体接收的一百年瑞郎的基本费用。使用真正的金钱奖励，大大减少了一个潜在的社会可取性的偏见和有偏见的自我认知的。因此，每个学科都接收一个在最后通牒博弈中赢得每亩瑞士法郎（约1美元）。每个主题都收到他或她的收入，包括基本费加在实验结束后在私人赢得亩。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Edwards, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+Androgen+Stimulation+and+Aggressive+Behavior+in+Male+and+Female+Mice.">Early Androgen Stimulation and Aggressive Behavior in Male and Female Mice.</a> Physiology &#38; Behav. 4, 333-338 (1969).</li><li>Archer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testosterone+and+human+aggression:+an+evaluation+of+the+challenge+hypothesis.">Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis.</a> Neurosci Biobehav R. 30, 319-345 (2006).</li><li>Mazur, A., Booth, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testosterone+and+dominance+in+men.">Testosterone and dominance in men.</a> Behav Brain Sci. 21, 353-363 (1998).</li><li>Josephs, R. A., Newman, M. L., Brown, R. P., Beer, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Status,+testosterone,+and+human+intellectual+performance:+stereotype+threat+as+status+concern.">Status, testosterone, and human intellectual performance: stereotype threat as status concern.</a> Psychol Sci. 14, 158-163 (2003).</li><li>Greiner, B., Kremer, K., Macho, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Forschung und wissenschaftliches Rechnen: GWDG Bericht 63. , 79-93 (2004).</li><li>van Honk, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single+administration+of+testosterone+induces+cardiac+accelerative+responses+to+angry+faces+in+healthy+young+women.">A single administration of testosterone induces cardiac accelerative responses to angry faces in healthy young women.</a> Behav Neurosci. 115, 238-242 (2001).</li><li>van Honk, J., Peper, J. S., Schutter, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testosterone+reduces+unconscious+fear+but+not+consciously+experienced+anxiety:+implications+for+the+disorders+of+fear+and+anxiety.">Testosterone reduces unconscious fear but not consciously experienced anxiety: implications for the disorders of fear and anxiety.</a> Biol Psychiatry. 58, 218-225 (2005).</li><li>Steyer, R., Schwenkmezger, P., Notz, P., Eid, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Der Mehrdimensionale Befindlichkeitsfragebogen (MDBF) [Multidimensional Mood Questionnaire. , (1997).</li><li>Laux, L., Glanzmann, P., Schaffner, P., Spielberger, C. 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R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> SCL-90-R, administration, scoring &amp;amp; procedures manual-I for the R(evised) version. , (1977).</li><li>Fischbacher, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=z-Tree:+Zurich+toolbox+for+ready-made+economic+experiments.">z-Tree: Zurich toolbox for ready-made economic experiments.</a> Experimental Economics. 10, 171-178 (2007).</li><li>Bjorkqvist, K., Nygren, T., Bjorklund, A. C., Bjorkqvist, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testosterone+Intake+and+Aggressiveness+-+Real+Effect+or+Anticipation.">Testosterone Intake and Aggressiveness - Real Effect or Anticipation.</a> Aggressive Behav. 20, 17-26 (1994).</li><li>Camerer, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Behavioral game theory: experiments in strategic interaction. , (2003).</li><li>Henrich, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term="Economic+man"+in+cross-cultural+perspective:+Behavioral+experiments+in+15+small-scale+societies.">"Economic man" in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies.</a> Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 28, 795-855 (2005).</li><li>Bardsley, N., Cubitt, R. P., Loomes, G., Moffatt, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Experimental economics : rethinking the rules. , (2009).</li><li>Eisenegger, C., Naef, M., Snozzi, R., Heinrichs, M., Fehr, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prejudice+and+truth+about+the+effect+of+testosterone+on+human+bargaining+behaviour.">Prejudice and truth about the effect of testosterone on human bargaining behaviour.</a> Nature. 463, 356-359 (2010).</li></ol>

迹象表明，你的结果是有效的，如果观察到的平均提供什么其他的研究发现类似。通常情况下，平均提供30 - 40％的总金额和大约一半的科目提供平等的每股 14 。另一方面，一个可能的指标，科目不明白的游戏规则是，如果观察到50％以上的优惠。然而，值得注意的是，有相当大的异质性的分布和平均提供了观察研究世界各地的 15 。 在所有的行为经济学实验<s...

combining behavioral endocrinology and experimental economics: testosterone and social decision making

在人类以及动物的行为内分泌学的研究表明，睾酮在社会交往起着关键作用。在啮齿类动物的研究表明，睾酮和侵略行为和适应这些研究结果对人类的民间智慧之间的直接联系，表明睾丸激素诱导反社会，利己主义， 甚至侵略性的行为2。然而，许多研究人员怀疑在人类直接睾酮侵略链接，而不是争论，主要是在涉及与状态相关的行为3,4睾酮。由于很高的地位，也可攻击性和反社会的手段来实现，它可以很难区分反社会和寻求行为状态。 因此，我们成立了一个实验环境，在其中的地位，只能是亲社会的手段实现。在一项双盲和安慰剂对照实验中，我们管理的睾酮0.5毫克舌下含服单剂量（与羟丙基-β-环糊精的载体）121名妇女，并调查他们在经济谈判模式中的社会交往行为。真正的货币奖励在这一范式的股份;每一个球员一个接收到一定数额的金钱和如何分享这笔钱到另一名球员B要约。如果B接受，她会提供什么和玩家A保持休息。如果B拒绝要约，没有人得到任何东西。一个寻求球员的状态，一个是预期，以避免被拒绝更高的优惠，即由一个亲社会行为。 结果表明，如果有关的激素的期望控制，睾酮管理导致公平谈判的一个显着增加提供与安慰剂相比，。预期的作用体现在，受试者报告说，他们相信已收到睾酮降低提供比那些说他们相信，他们与安慰剂治疗。这些结果表明，实验经济学的方法用于检测激素的管理取得的微妙的神经生物学效应的敏感。此外，调查结果指向在确定睾酮对人类社会行为的的影响双方的心理，以及神经内分泌因子的重要性。

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Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

在本议定书中所描述的过程表明，约睾酮睾酮管理和民间信仰与社会行为的直接反对关联。

睾酮和社会决策，结合行为内分泌和实验经济学:

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in ...

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15.0K 次观看.  University of Zurich. 在本议定书中所描述的过程表明，约睾酮睾酮管理和民间信仰与社会行为的直接反对关联。

视频: Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Combining Computer Game-Based Behavioural Experiments With High-Density EEG and Infrared Gaze Tracking

Experimental paradigms are valuable insofar as the timing and other parameters of their stimuli are well specified and controlled, and insofar as they yield data relevant to the cognitive processing that occurs under ecologically valid conditions. These two goals often are at odds, since well controlled stimuli often are too repetitive to sustain subjects' motivation. Studies employing electroencephalography (EEG) are often especially sensitive to this dilemma between ecological validity and experimental control: attaining sufficient signal-to-noise in physiological averages demands large numbers of repeated trials within lengthy recording sessions, limiting the subject pool to individuals with the ability and patience to perform a set task over and over again. This constraint severely limits researchers' ability to investigate younger populations as well as clinical populations associated with heightened anxiety or attentional abnormalities. Even adult, non-clinical subjects may not be able to achieve their typical levels of performance or cognitive engagement: an unmotivated subject for whom an experimental task is little more than a chore is not the same, behaviourally, cognitively, or neurally, as a subject who is intrinsically motivated and engaged with the task. A growing body of literature demonstrates that embedding experiments within video games may provide a way between the horns of this dilemma between experimental control and ecological validity. The narrative of a game provides a more realistic context in which tasks occur, enhancing their ecological validity (Chaytor &amp; Schmitter-Edgecombe, 2003). Moreover, this context provides motivation to complete tasks. In our game, subjects perform various missions to collect resources, fend off pirates, intercept communications or facilitate diplomatic relations. In so doing, they also perform an array of cognitive tasks, including a Posner attention-shifting paradigm (Posner, 1980), a go/no-go test of motor inhibition, a psychophysical motion coherence threshold task, the Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, 1950, 1954) and a theory-of-mind (Wimmer &amp; Perner, 1983) task. The game software automatically registers game stimuli and subjects' actions and responses in a log file, and sends event codes to synchronise with physiological data recorders. Thus the game can be combined with physiological measures such as EEG or fMRI, and with moment-to-moment tracking of gaze. Gaze tracking can verify subjects' compliance with behavioural tasks (e.g. fixation) and overt attention to experimental stimuli, and also physiological arousal as reflected in pupil dilation (Bradley et al., 2008). At great enough sampling frequencies, gaze tracking may also help assess covert attention as reflected in microsaccades - eye movements that are too small to foveate a new object, but are as rapid in onset and have the same relationship between angular distance and peak velocity as do saccades that traverse greater distances. The distribution of directions of microsaccades correlates with the (otherwise) covert direction of attention (Hafed &amp; Clark, 2002).

Procedures for recording high-density EEG and gaze data during computer game-based cognitive tasks are described. Using a video game to present cognitive tasks enhances ecological validity without sacrificing experimental control.

结合电玩与高密度的脑电图和红外视线跟踪基于行为的实验

Experimental paradigms are valuable insofar as the timing and other parameters of their stimuli are well specified and controlled, and insofar as they ...

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神经科学

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

The ability to gauge social interactions is crucial in the assessment of others&#x2019; intentions. Factors such as facial expressions and body language affect our decisions in personal and professional life alike 1. These "friend or foe" judgements are often based on first impressions, which in turn may affect our decisions to "approach or avoid". Previous studies investigating the neural correlates of social cognition tended to use static facial stimuli 2. Here, we illustrate an experimental design in which whole-body animated characters were used in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recordings. Fifteen participants were presented with short movie-clips of guest-host interactions in a business setting, while fMRI data were recorded; at the end of each movie, participants also provided ratings of the host behaviour. This design mimics more closely real-life situations, and hence may contribute to better understanding of the neural mechanisms of social interactions in healthy behaviour, and to gaining insight into possible causes of deficits in social behaviour in such clinical conditions as social anxiety and autism 3.

This article demonstrates an experimental design in which whole-body animated characters are used in conjunction with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the neural correlates of observing virtual social interactions.

观察虚拟社会交往中的神经关联的脑成像研究

The ability to gauge social interactions is crucial in the assessment of others&#x2019; intentions. Factors such as facial expressions and body language ...

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal. Such analysis of two or more genes needs to be complemented with in situ hybridization of other genes, or immunohistochemistry of their proteins, both in whole mounted developing organs or sections for detailed resolution of the cellular and tissue expression alterations. Combining multiple gene alterations requires the use of cre or flipase to conditionally delete genes and avoid embryonic lethality. Required breeding schemes dramatically enhance effort and cost proportional to the number of genes mutated, with an outcome of very few animals with the full repertoire of genetic modifications desired. Amortizing the vast amount of effort and time to obtain these few precious specimens that are carrying multiple mutations necessitates tissue optimization. Moreover, investigating a single animal with multiple techniques makes it easier to correlate gene deletion defects with expression profiles. We have developed a technique to obtain a more thorough analysis of a given animal; with the ability to analyze several different histologically recognizable structures as well as gene and protein expression all from the same specimen in both whole mounted organs and sections. Although mice have been utilized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique it can be applied to a wide array of animals. To do this we combine lipophilic dye tracing, whole mount in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology to extract the maximal possible amount of data.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

结合亲脂性染料，原位杂交，免疫组织化学和组织学

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal.  Such analysis of ...

Measuring the Subjective Value of Risky and Ambiguous Options using Experimental Economics and Functional MRI Methods

Most of the choices we make have uncertain consequences. In some cases the probabilities for different possible outcomes are precisely known, a condition termed "risky". In other cases when probabilities cannot be estimated, this is a condition described as "ambiguous". While most people are averse to both risk and ambiguity1,2, the degree of those aversions vary substantially across individuals, such that the subjective value of the same risky or ambiguous option can be very different for different individuals. We combine functional MRI (fMRI) with an experimental economics-based method3 to assess the neural representation of the subjective values of risky and ambiguous options4. This technique can be now used to study these neural representations in different populations, such as different age groups and different patient populations.
In our experiment, subjects make consequential choices between two alternatives while their neural activation is tracked using fMRI. On each trial subjects choose between lotteries that vary in their monetary amount and in either the probability of winning that amount or the ambiguity level associated with winning. Our parametric design allows us to use each individual's choice behavior to estimate their attitudes towards risk and ambiguity, and thus to estimate the subjective values that each option held for them. Another important feature of the design is that the outcome of the chosen lottery is not revealed during the experiment, so that no learning can take place, and thus the ambiguous options remain ambiguous and risk attitudes are stable. Instead, at the end of the scanning session one or few trials are randomly selected and played for real money. Since subjects do not know beforehand which trials will be selected, they must treat each and every trial as if it and it alone was the one trial on which they will be paid. This design ensures that we can estimate the true subjective value of each option to each subject. We then look for areas in the brain whose activation is correlated with the subjective value of risky options and for areas whose activation is correlated with the subjective value of ambiguous options.

Using functional MRI and behavioral methods to determine the neural representation of the subjective value of risky and ambiguous options in the human brain.

，测量主观价值风险和不明确的选项，使用实验经济学和功能磁共振成像的方法

Most of the choices we make have uncertain consequences. In some cases the probabilities for different possible outcomes are precisely known, a condition ...

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the surface of an agar plate. For the study of the genetic, biochemical, and neuronal basis of behavior, C. elegans is an ideal organism because it is genetically tractable, amenable to microscopy, and shows a number of complex behaviors, including taxis, learning, and social interaction1,2. Behavioral analysis based on tracking the movements of worms as they crawl on agar plates have been particularly useful in the study of sensory behavior3, locomotion4, and general mutational phenotyping5. Our system works by moving the camera and illumination system as the worms crawls on a stationary agar plate, which ensures no mechanical stimulus is transmitted to the worm. Our tracking system is easy to use and includes a semi-automatic calibration feature. A challenge of all video tracking systems is that it generates an enormous amount of data that is intrinsically high dimensional. Our image processing and data analysis programs deal with this challenge by reducing the worms shape into a set of independent components, which comprehensively reconstruct the worms behavior as a function of only 3-4 dimensions6,7. As an example of the process we show that the worm enters and exits its reversal state in a phase specific manner.

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed a video-rate tracking microscope system that can record and quantify C. elegans behavior at high resolution and high speeds. We have also developed computational methods to reduce the dimensionality of the worm images to a fundamental set of measurements that completely describe the shape of the worm.

线虫跟踪和行为测量

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the ...

A Low Cost Setup for Behavioral Audiometry in Rodents

In auditory animal research it is crucial to have precise information about basic hearing parameters of the animal subjects that are involved in the experiments. Such parameters may be physiological response characteristics of the auditory pathway, e.g. via brainstem audiometry (BERA). But these methods allow only indirect and uncertain extrapolations about the auditory percept that corresponds to these physiological parameters. To assess the perceptual level of hearing, behavioral methods have to be used. A potential problem with the use of behavioral methods for the description of perception in animal models is the fact that most of these methods involve some kind of learning paradigm before the subjects can be behaviorally tested, e.g. animals may have to learn to press a lever in response to a sound. As these learning paradigms change perception itself 1,2 they consequently will influence any result about perception obtained with these methods and therefore have to be interpreted with caution. Exceptions are paradigms that make use of reflex responses, because here no learning paradigms have to be carried out prior to perceptual testing. One such reflex response is the acoustic startle response (ASR) that can highly reproducibly be elicited with unexpected loud sounds in na&iuml;ve animals. This ASR in turn can be influenced by preceding sounds depending on the perceptibility of this preceding stimulus: Sounds well above hearing threshold will completely inhibit the amplitude of the ASR; sounds close to threshold will only slightly inhibit the ASR. This phenomenon is called pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) 3,4, and the amount of PPI on the ASR gradually depends on the perceptibility of the pre-pulse. PPI of the ASR is therefore well suited to determine behavioral audiograms in na&iuml;ve, non-trained animals, to determine hearing impairments or even to detect possible subjective tinnitus percepts in these animals. In this paper we demonstrate the use of this method in a rodent model (cf. also ref. 5), the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus), which is a well know model species for startle response research within the normal human hearing range (e.g. 6).

A fast and inexpensive method for the behavioral determination of hearing parameters like hearing thresholds, hearing impairments or phantom perceptions (subjective tinnitus) is described. It uses pre-pulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response and can be easily implemented in a personal computer using a programmable AD/DA-converter and a piezo sensor.

在啮齿动物的行为测听的低成本设置

In auditory animal research it is crucial to have precise information about basic hearing parameters of the animal subjects that are involved in the ...

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance imaging. However, use of such methods in animal models requires anesthesia and hence both alters the brain state and prevents behavioral measures. An alternative method is the use of in vivo microdialysis to take continuous measurement of brain extracellular fluid concentrations of glucose, lactate, and related metabolites in awake, unrestrained animals. This technique is especially useful when combined with tasks designed to rely on specific brain regions and/or acute pharmacological manipulation; for example, hippocampal measurements during a spatial working memory task (spontaneous alternation) show a dip in extracellular glucose and rise in lactate that are suggestive of enhanced glycolysis1-3,4-5, and intrahippocampal insulin administration both improves memory and increases hippocampal glycolysis6. Substances such as insulin can be delivered to the hippocampus via the same microdialysis probe used to measure metabolites. The use of spontaneous alternation as a measure of hippocampal function is designed to avoid any confound from stressful motivators (e.g. footshock), restraint, or rewards (e.g. food), all of which can alter both task performance and metabolism; this task also provides a measure of motor activity that permits control for nonspecific effects of treatment. Combined, these methods permit direct measurement of the neurochemical and metabolic variables regulating behavior.

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Modulation of hippocampally-dependent spatial working memory by direct intrahippocampal microinjection, accompanied and followed by in vivo microdialysis for metabolites in conscious, behaving animals.

海马胰岛素显微注射和<em在体内</em&gt;微透析过程中空间记忆测试

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance ...

Simultaneous Detection of c-Fos Activation from Mesolimbic and Mesocortical Dopamine Reward Sites Following Naive Sugar and Fat Ingestion in Rats

This study uses cellular c-fos activation to assess effects of novel ingestion of fat and sugar on brain dopamine (DA) pathways in rats. Intakes of sugars and fats are mediated by their innate attractions as well as learned preferences. Brain dopamine, especially meso-limbic and meso-cortical projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), has been implicated in both of these unlearned and learned responses. The concept of distributed brain networks, wherein several sites and transmitter/peptide systems interact, has been proposed to mediate palatable food intake, but there is limited evidence empirically demonstrating such actions. Thus, sugar intake elicits DA release and increases c-fos-like immunoreactivity (FLI) from individual VTA DA projection zones including the nucleus accumbens (NAC), amygdala (AMY) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as well as the dorsal striatum. Further, central administration of selective DA receptor antagonists into these sites differentially reduce acquisition and expression of conditioned flavor preferences elicited by sugars or fats. One approach by which to determine whether these sites interacted as a distributed brain network in response to sugar or fat intake would be to simultaneous evaluate whether the VTA and its major mesotelencephalic DA projection zones (prelimbic and infralimbic mPFC, core and shell of the NAc, basolateral and central-cortico-medial AMY) as well as the dorsal striatum would display coordinated and simultaneous FLI activation after oral, unconditioned intake of corn oil (3.5%), glucose (8%), fructose (8%) and saccharin (0.2%) solutions. This approach is a successful first step in identifying the feasibility of using cellular c-fos activation simultaneously across relevant brain sites to study reward-related learning in ingestion of palatable food in rodents.

The goal of this study is to identify reward-related distributed brain networks by delineating a reliable immunohistological technique using cellular c-fos activation to measure simultaneous changes in dopamine pathways and terminal sites after novel ingestion of fat and sugar in rats.

从脑边缘和Mesocortical多巴胺奖赏网站继朴素的糖和脂肪摄入大鼠c-fos激活的同时检测

This study uses cellular c-fos activation to assess effects of novel ingestion of fat and sugar on brain dopamine (DA) pathways in rats. Intakes of sugars ...

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific frequency and in turn modulate ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. This neurotool allows the establishment of a causal link between endogenous oscillatory activity and behavior. Most of the tACS studies have shown online effects of tACS. However, little is known about the underlying action mechanisms of this technique because of the AC-induced artifacts on Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Here we show a unique approach to investigate online physiological frequency-specific effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex (M1) by using single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to probe cortical excitability changes. In our setup, the TMS coil is placed over the tACS electrode while Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) are collected to test the effects of the ongoing M1-tACS. So far, this approach has mainly been used to study the visual and motor systems. However, the current tACS-TMS setup can pave the way for future investigations of cognitive functions. Therefore, we provide a step-by-step manual and video guidelines for the procedure.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) allows the modulation of cortical excitability in a frequency-specific fashion. Here we show a unique approach which combines online tACS with single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in order to "probe" cortical excitability by means of Motor Evoked Potentials.

经颅磁刺激在线联合方法对经颅交流电刺激对原发性运动皮层的影响

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their consequences. This process is integral to the normal human behavior and has been shown to be disrupted by neurological and psychiatric disorders such as addiction, schizophrenia, and depression. Rodents have long been used to uncover the neurobiology of human cognition. To this end, several behavioral tasks have been developed; however, most are non-automated and are labor-intensive. The recent development of the open-source microcontroller has enabled researchers to automate operant-based tasks for assessing a variety of cognitive tasks, standardizing the stimulus presentation, improving the data recording and consequently, improving the research output. Here, we describe an automated delay-based reinforcement-guided decision-making task, using an operant T-maze controlled by custom-written software programs. Using these decision-making tasks, we show the changes in the local field potential activities in the anterior cingulate cortex of a rat whilst it performs a delay-based cost-and-benefit decision-making task.

A cost-benefit analysis is a weighing-scale approach that the brain performs during the course of decision making. Here, we propose a protocol to train rats on an operant-based decision-making paradigm where rats choose higher rewards at the expense of waiting for 15 s to receive them.

啮齿动物强化决策中成本效益分析的操作协议

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...