The research was supported by the National Research Council (CNR) of Italy. The authors thank GIRE members for collecting seed samples and are grateful to Alison Garside for revising the English.

1.种子取样和存储<ol><li>监视不合理的除草剂表现不佳耕地， 即不因不利的气候条件或低质量的除草剂处理。 </li><li>收集来自一个物种的种子样品的时间和分配一个唯一的代码。成熟的种子通常是前收割从幸存的除草剂处理（S）的植物收集。及时监测，观察，如果种子是由母厂棚成熟时。 </li><li>在每个样品填表说明分配的唯一代码在赛季中使用的物质，收集日期，GPS坐标，直辖市，农民的名字，字段的大小，为患水平，作物，除草剂（S）和外地的历史记录，名称。 </li><li>从至少30随机选择的植物是代表励磁为患收集种子。保证种子样品含有至少5000成熟种子。对于专异交杂草（ 例如，黑麦草属物种或苋属），降低植物的编号，以10-15，保持种子的总数大约5000 11。 </li><li>子样的领域，如果杂草补丁分散在大面积（超过一公顷），为不同的抗除草剂的生物型选择。 </li><li>商店的种子在标记有分配唯一码启封纸袋。 </li><li>让水分蒸发，但不暴露的种子在高温（ 即，避免在阳光下让他们在汽车）或极端温度波动，避免感应二次休眠。 </li><li>清洁（除去谷壳，脱船体种子等 ）和它们在环境温度下储存在干燥的房间。在进行第一电阻测试后，储存的种子的时间在暗室中长时间在4℃下，优选在真空密封的塑料袋。这样的种子保存其活力的显著更长的时间。 </li></ol>注：种子休眠提供了一个灵活，高效的机制，使杂草适应，坚持农业生态系统。打破休眠，允许种子萌发，不同的协议具有取决于杂草种类， 即，休眠16的类型中使用。 主要有三种方式来删除休眠： <ol><li>春化 注：要获得同时萌发和出苗，一期的种子春化从几天到一个星期需要从许多物种中删除生理休眠：例如，反枝苋 ， 藜 ， 黑麦草属，野燕麦，蓼，虉paradoxa的 17-19。需要长达15天周期较长的虞美人 ， 异型莎草和Ammania红花和长达30天的水毛花 <suP&gt; 20。 <ol><li>把一些去离子水的塑料菜。切滤纸两层浸泡在水中，去除多余的。放置风干种子上的文件内。转移的塑料菜冰箱，在4℃的时间所需的时间。 </li></ol></li><li>乱刺 注：某些杂草种类较多顽抗萌发比别人因机械休眠， 即种皮的特点，并需要使用用硫酸化学划痕的发芽21。 <ol><li>制备用浓硫酸（95-98％）的烧杯中。准备一个装满水的烧杯中。把种子中的非织造织物的信封。 </li><li>浸泡例如，稗属物种或假高粱种子20分钟或5分钟，分别在浓硫酸。 </li><li>就拿出来信封使用镊子的烧杯中，并把它放在烧杯中装满了水。打开信封，把种子小漏勺冲洗一下彻底的在流水下。 </li></ol>词：A.苡菜类需要一个不同的协议22，23 <ol><li>浸泡的种子在氯仿2分钟。冲洗种子用去离子水中，并用吸水纸干燥。扣篮的种子在80％硫酸进行5分钟。 </li><li>把种子在一个小漏勺冲洗一下彻底的在流水下。 </li></ol></li><li>收获后的种子成熟 注：其他杂草种子成熟后，不发芽，在所有的几个月，无论用来打破休眠的方法。 <ol><li>存储的种子的期间中的至少3-4个月在RT和低湿度，然后按照对打破休眠（ 例如，水稻变种山毛榉或P.虞美人 ）上述协议。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3，种子发芽<ol><li>地方种子在PLAS发芽含0.6％（M / V）琼脂硝酸钾0.1％（KNO 3）TIC菜补充说： <ol><li>使用去离子水制备的琼脂的溶液在0.6％+ 0.1％的KNO 3。溶解在微波炉中的琼脂上。 </li><li>倒入琼脂溶液倒入塑料菜。冷却该基材上，然后放于种子。 </li></ol>变体：土壤，也可以用来作为在塑料盘中的基板。这种做法是对稗属特别有效，S.假高粱和黑麦草属。 </li><li>将塑料菜在柜子发芽大约一个星期取决于每个杂草的最佳条件光照和温度条件。对于大多数冬季品种，温度范围为15/25℃，夜晚/白天和12小时光照与霓虹灯管提供15-30微摩尔米-2秒-1的光合光子通量密度（PPFD）。对于许多夏天物种，所述温度范围为15/30℃，夜/日。 变种：•青梅物种，如S.假高粱，需要进行热处理。在划痕后，因此，种子S.在发芽柜4小时的周期在45℃和20小时，在24℃，3天，然后三天正常条件： 假高粱经受以下条件。 </li></ol> 4.育苗移栽和生长<ol><li>移植十五到二十苗放入盛有标准的盆栽混合塑料托盘（325 x 265 x95毫米）（60％粉质壤土，15％的沙子，15％agriperlite和10％的泥炭 - 以体积计）。 注：不是直接播种移栽，允许获得在同一生长阶段的统一立场的植物，这是一个重要的先决条件，以优化除草剂处理的性能。 </li><li>识别每个托盘的条形码在内的所有信息的唯一识别：人口代码，除草剂被测试，复制数量和渐进盘号&lt;。/ LI&gt; <li>地方托盘中，以维持所述衬底处或附近田间持水量加热温室和水的植物。 注：根据杂草种类的生长温度变化。通常测试期间秋/冬/春完成，所以光用400瓦的金属卤化物灯，它提供了约150微摩尔米-2秒的PPFD -1和12小时光照24，19，夏季杂草与补充的C 4光合周期通常需要更高的光强度，因此测试完成在春末，夏季或补充光照强度约400微摩尔米-2秒-1用14小时光照。 </li><li>使用不同的协议进行一些杂草为害水稻， 例如，A。苡菜类，S松材线虫和C.异型莎草在22描述。 <ol><li>移植苗成聚苯乙烯托盘24的圆形细胞（55毫米直径64毫米深）FIL导致用60％粉质壤土，30％沙子，10％泥炭（体积）。 </li><li>深集塑料容器装满水和固定的向下拧不锈钢棒，以防止它们飘浮（ 图1）12厘米托盘。 </li><li>保持在容器中的水位在1-2厘米以下的土壤表面的水平，并添加1.5克硫酸铜到每个容器（其含有10-12升水），以避免藻类的增殖。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5.除草剂处理<ol><li>治疗用芽前除草剂： <ol><li>后在发芽柜约三天如第3描述的，移植的发芽种子成塑料托盘含有上述基板和覆盖一层土（约1厘米）。这是为了确保苗不会由于杀草效果，而不是过大的埋藏深度出现的一个关键步骤。 </li><li>就拿基板领域卡帕城市放置托盘，里面有几个洞的底部，碟子上装满了水。 </li><li>移栽后一天，把托盘与芽前除草剂25。 </li><li>保持在衬底处或附近田间持水量通过既从上面和下面通过从飞碟毛细需要加水。此过程有利于除草剂的永久性在适当的深度（ 即，这里的发芽种子是）有一个良好的治疗效果。 </li></ol></li><li>治疗用苗后除草剂： <ol><li>喷塑厂当他们达到2-3叶期（ 即成长阶段扩展BBCH规模增长26 12-13）。 </li><li>治疗后，从那天起，根据杂草种类的季节（ 比如，稗属水的要求和灌溉系统。它提供水3分钟，每天4次，每隔一定时间从上午9点到9 PM）。水是DIS张焕春使用自动喷灌系统。 词：草甘膦工厂在现阶段BBCH 14-21应用。 </li></ol></li><li>除草剂编写和分发。 注：所有除草剂（前和出苗后）是在两个剂量施加作为商业制剂与推荐的表面活性剂，推荐字段剂量​​（1x）和三倍（3×）。 <ol><li>如果需要的话，根据标签指示准备在本体表面活性剂溶液;最终浓度通常表示为最终体积的百分比（ 例如，0.3％）或作为卷到每单位面积（ 例如，1升公顷-1）进行分发。 </li><li>使用以表面活性剂溶液为溶剂的除草剂（溶质）溶液，以保持活性成分的权利浓度。首先准备最集中的除草剂溶液（3次）。计算溶解在表面活性剂溶液的商业产品的数量（或在去离子水，如果一个使用下列公式的表面活性剂是没有必要的）： 浓度中药 = [（剂量域x剂量最大 ）x垂直尾翼 ] / V 德尔 其中：剂量草本植物 =除草剂剂量（毫升），剂量字段 =除草剂字段剂量（毫升公顷-1），剂量最大 =最大剂量递送，V 鳍 =的溶液（L）的最终体积，V 德尔 =体积由输送替补喷雾器（L公顷-1）。 </li><li>稀释（2:1，体积/体积）的除草剂溶液3倍以制备的浓度最低的一（1×）。此过程减少了称重或吹打除草剂时犯错的机会。除草剂溶液浓度表示为体积要的每单位面积（L公顷-1）分布。 </li><li>开始与下部除草剂剂量（1×）处理的序列。以这种方式，没有必要用相同的除草剂两种治疗之间洗喷涂柜。 </li><li>分发除草剂搜索解决方案N使用一个精密台喷雾器递送300微升公顷-1（±1％），在215千帕压力下，为0.75m秒-1的速度，用装有三个平帆（扩展范围）液压喷嘴悬臂。 </li><li>洗喷涂柜两次时，除草剂使用漂白剂的1％变化（体积/体积）中，然后冲洗干净。 变体：草甘膦施加的200升公顷-1 27的喷雾体积。 注：特别注意有高度时，除草剂的生物，如磺脲类或嘧磺隆flazasulfuron，用于支付。在后一种情况下做一次洗涤用漂白溶液和另一用氨（2.5％体积/体积）中，然后仔细用清水冲洗。 </li></ol></li></ol> 6.收集和数据分析<ol><li>通过条形码阅读器，它自动地识别每个纸盒，记录植物存活的治疗以及视觉估计生物量（VEB）的数量。植物是屁股ESSED作为死了，如果他们没有表现出积极的增长无论颜色还是外观等的。 <ol><li>使后三或四周治疗（WAT）的评估取决于所测试的除草剂（ 例如，三WAT为ACC酶抑制剂和四个WAT为ALS抑制剂或草甘膦）。 </li><li>通过包括易感人群（检查S）在所有实验， 即收集在一个网站，是从来没有或很少与除草剂处理人口评估的一般治疗效果。 </li><li>明示植物存活处理的植物的数量的百分比，计算正好在除草剂处理前，并计算每平均值的标准误（SE）（指的是两次重复的值）。 </li><li>对VEB通过植物生物量的视觉比较所得之间处理和不处理的检查相同的人口25，28的一个得分，范围从10不受除草剂（与未治疗的检查相比）植物为0什么时候植物显然是死的，给予每个处理托盘。 </li></ol></li><li>归因于种群基于从处理用两个除草剂剂量获得的结果四类：S当植物小于5％存活的除草剂剂量1×，SR时幸存者从5％到20％的除草剂剂量1×中，R的情况相比更植物的20％存活的除草剂剂量1x和RR时幸存者在除草剂剂量1×20％以上，并在除草剂剂量3×17的10％以上。 </li></ol>

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J., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Target-site+resistance+to+ALS+inhibitors+in+the+polyploid+species+Echinochloa+crus-galli.">Target-site resistance to ALS inhibitors in the polyploid species Echinochloa crus-galli.</a> Pestic. Biochem. Phys. 105 (2), 93-101 (2013).</li><li>Sattin, M., Berto, D., Zanin, G., Tabacchi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+to+ALS+inhibitors+in+rice+in+north-western+Italy.">Resistance to ALS inhibitors in rice in north-western Italy.</a> Proc. BCPC. Weeds. , 783-790 (1999).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Berto, D., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dormancy+breaking+and+germination+of+Alisma+plantago-aquatica.+and+Scirpus+mucronatus.">Dormancy breaking and germination of Alisma plantago-aquatica. and Scirpus mucronatus.</a> Aspects of Applied Biology. 69, 285-292 (2003).</li><li>Collavo, A., Strek, H., Beffa, R., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Management+of+an+ACCase-inhibitor-resistant+Lolium+rigidum.+population+based+on+the+use+of+ALS+inhibitors:+weed+population+evolution+observed+over+a+7+years+field-scale+investigation.">Management of an ACCase-inhibitor-resistant Lolium rigidum. population based on the use of ALS inhibitors: weed population evolution observed over a 7 years field-scale investigation.</a> Pest Manag. Sci. 69 (2), 200-208 (2013).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Panozzo, S., Savoia, W., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Target-site+ACCase-resistant+Johnsongrass+(Sorghum+halepense).+selected+in+summer+dicot+crops.">Target-site ACCase-resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense). selected in summer dicot crops.</a> Weed Technol. 28 (2), 307-315 (2014).</li><li>Hess, M., Barralis, H., Bleiholder, H., Buhur, L., Eggers, T., Hack, H., Strauss, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+extended+BBCH+scale+-+general+for+the+description+of+the+growth+stages+of+mono-+and+dicotyledonous+weed+species.">Use of the extended BBCH scale - general for the description of the growth stages of mono- and dicotyledonous weed species.</a> Weed Res. 37 (6), 433-441 (1997).</li><li>Collavo, A., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=First+glyphosate-resistant+Lolium.+spp.+biotypes+found+in+a+European+annual+arable+cropping+system+also+affected+by+ACCase+and+ALS+resistance.">First glyphosate-resistant Lolium. spp. biotypes found in a European annual arable cropping system also affected by ACCase and ALS resistance.</a> Weed Res. 54 (4), 325-334 (2014).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Cenghialta, C., Manuello, D., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+and+management+of+imidazolinone-resistant+red+rice+(Oryza+sativa.+L.,+var.+sylvatica.)+in+Clearfield&#174;+Italian+paddy+rice.">Monitoring and management of imidazolinone-resistant red rice (Oryza sativa. L., var. sylvatica.) in Clearfield&#174; Italian paddy rice.</a> Agronomy. 2 (4), 371-383 (2012).</li><li>Zelaya, I. A., Anderson, J. A. H., Owen, M. D. K., Landes, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+spectrophotometric+and+HPLC+methods+for+shikimic+acid+determination+in+plants:+Models+in+glyphosate-resistant+and-susceptible+crops.">Evaluation of spectrophotometric and HPLC methods for shikimic acid determination in plants: Models in glyphosate-resistant and-susceptible crops.</a> J. Agric. Food Chem. 59 (6), 2202-2212 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

内协议的几个步骤是抗除草剂的人口的成功关键评估：1）种子应当收集成熟时从幸存的除草剂处理（S）的植物。在母株的种子成熟是至关重要的，以避免在种子发芽后的困难; 2）种子的存放建议避免霉菌，防止发芽的扩散; 3）苗应在合适的生长阶段来处理，所报告的除草剂包装的标签上。必须小心，使得所处理的植物已经大致达到相同的生长阶段; 4）将除草剂溶液应准备并准确处理，以便苗用?...

<html>除草剂是最广泛使用的杂草控制措施，占全球植物保护市场1高达50％。他们是相对便宜的工具，避免劳动密集和费时的土壤耕作活动，并最终导致成本效益，安全和有利可图的粮食生产2。然而，巨大的物候和遗传变异存在于许多杂草，对除草剂的使用过度依赖在一起，经常导致抗除草剂杂草种群的选择。选择性除草剂的一个非常具体的目标代谢引进3-5急剧增加的阻力案件的数量多年来。到目前为止，世界各地的240种杂草（双子叶植物140和100单子叶植物）产生了抗性行动（SOA）4不同的除草剂站点。这是一个大问题杂草管理，更一般的可持续作物生产。 e_content“&gt;早检测电阻的基础上，可靠的试验，在温室中频繁地进行，是管理除草剂抗性杂草的关键步骤。根据该目标，精度，时间和可利用的资源所需的水平不同的方法已被开发，如以及考虑6-12的杂草种类。然而，当确认一个新的杂草生物型的电阻状态是必需的（ 即，一组个人共享几个生理特征，包括生存属于一种或多种除草剂的能力在通常将控制它们的剂量用于特定基），一个强大的整株植物生物测定需要在受控环境4,11进行。 一个生物型是刚刚一种除草剂抗性很少。因此，每个生物型的特征在于一定的阻力图案，SOA的即，数量和类型的除草剂是抗性，并且由给定的阻力级别每个除草剂13。早期的和可靠的决心交叉或多重耐药5的格局，14是现场管理性的重要。 值得一提的是，抗除草剂无关与自然容忍对某些除草剂， 例如，双子叶植物与ACC酶抑制除草剂，单子叶植物与2,4-D， 问荆对一些杂草展览草甘膦。 本文提出了一种可靠的方法来测试假定采样除草剂在控制通过除草剂​​（S）差已经报道领域耐生物型。相关的变体，以相对于所涉及的杂草种类的标准协议被提出。在仅使用一种除草剂剂量15或治疗种子在培养皿8根据任一整株植物生物测定法替代的技术/协议的优点都涉及到更高reliability和推断，因为在实验中列入两个除草剂剂量的阻力水平的可能性。然而，对于常规的电阻测试中，相同的方法可以在仅一种除草剂剂量施加，所以降低了成本。 以及允许确认电阻状态的，可以同时用于优化下面研究步骤和/或制定完善的抗性管理策略获得的信息。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper bags</td>
			<td>Celcar SAS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic dishes</td>
			<td>ISI plast S.p.A.</td>
			<td>SO600</td>
			<td>Transparent plastic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfuric acid 95-98%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>320501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-woven fabric</td>
			<td>Carretta Tessitura</td>
			<td>Art.TNT17</td>
			<td>Weight&#160; 17 gr m-&#178;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform &#62;99.5%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2432</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A1296</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium nitrate &#62;99.0%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic containers</td>
			<td>Giganplast</td>
			<td>1875/M</td>
			<td>600 x 400 x 110 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic trays</td>
			<td>Piber plast</td>
			<td>G1210A</td>
			<td>325 x 265 x 95 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene trays</td>
			<td>Plastisavio</td>
			<td>S24</td>
			<td>537x328x72 mm, 24 round cells (6x4)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>451657</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agriperlite</td>
			<td>Blu Agroingross sas</td>
			<td>AGRI100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peat</td>
			<td>Blu Agroingross sas</td>
			<td>TORBA250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Germination cabinet</td>
			<td>KW</td>
			<td>W87R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nozzles</td>
			<td>Teejet</td>
			<td>&#160;XR11002-VK, TP11001-VH</td>
			<td>The second type of nozzles are used only for glyphosate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Barcode generator</td>
			<td>Toshiba TEC</td>
			<td>SX4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Labels with barcode</td>
			<td>Felga</td>
			<td>TT20200</td>
			<td>Stick-in labels with rounded corners</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Barcode reader</td>
			<td>Cipherlab</td>
			<td>8300-L</td>
			<td>Portable data terminal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bench sprayer</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Built in house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">HERBICIDES INCLUDED IN THE RESULTS:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Commercial product</td>
			<td>Active ingredient</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Altorex</td>
			<td>imazamox</td>
			<td>BASF</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Azimut&#160;</td>
			<td>florasulam</td>
			<td>Dow AgroSciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopower</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Hussar WG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dash</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BASF</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Altorex</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Granstar&#160;</td>
			<td>tribenuron-methyl</td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gulliver&#160;</td>
			<td>azimsulfuron</td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hussar WG&#160;</td>
			<td>iodosulfuron</td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nominee&#160;</td>
			<td>bispyribac-Na</td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roundup</td>
			<td>glyphosate</td>
			<td>Monsanto</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trend</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Granstar and Gulliver</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Viper&#160;</td>
			<td>penoxsulam</td>
			<td>Dow AgroSciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weedone LV4</td>
			<td>2,4-D</td>
			<td>Isagro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

protocols for robust herbicide resistance testing in different weed species

Robust protocols to test putative herbicide resistant weed populations at whole plant level are essential to confirm the resistance status. The presented protocols, based on whole-plant bioassays performed in a greenhouse, can be readily adapted to a wide range of weed species and herbicides through appropriate variants. Seed samples from plants that survived a field herbicide treatment are collected and stored dry at low temperature until used. Germination methods differ according to weed species and seed dormancy type. Seedlings at similar growth stage are transplanted and maintained in the greenhouse under appropriate conditions until plants have reached the right growth stage for herbicide treatment. Accuracy is required to prepare the herbicide solution to avoid unverifiable mistakes. Other critical steps such as the application volume and spray speed are also evaluated. The advantages of this protocol, compared to others based on whole plant bioassays using one herbicide dose, are related to the higher reliability and the possibility of inferring the resistance level. Quicker and less expensive in vivo or in vitro diagnostic screening tests have been proposed (Petri dish bioassays, spectrophotometric tests), but they provide only qualitative information and their widespread use is hindered by the laborious set-up that some species may require. For routine resistance testing, the proposed whole plant bioassay can be applied at only one herbicide dose, so reducing the costs.

为了评估推定抗性群体的电阻状态，这是基本的，以包括在测定中的易感检查以便核实除草剂效力。的筛选试验上进行P.结果虞美人种群，杂草为害麦田，报告于图2中，其中的上易感检查（09-36），并在可疑的抗性酮（10-91）4芽后除草剂的效力呈现。人口09-36完全被ALS抑制剂受控iodosulfuron而只有一个植物存活测试，florasulam和苯磺隆（ 图2）的另两个的ALS除草?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species at JoVE.com

Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species

A robust and flexible approach to confirm herbicide resistance in weed populations is presented. This protocol allows the herbicide resistance levels to be inferred and applied to a wide range of weed species and herbicides with minor adaptations.

协议的鲁棒抗除草剂试验在不同杂草

Robust protocols to test putative herbicide resistant weed populations at whole plant level are essential to confirm the resistance status. The presented ...

protocols-for-robust-herbicide-resistance-testing-different-weed

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

14.4K 次观看.  National Research Council (CNR), Italy. A robust and flexible approach to confirm herbicide resistance in weed populations is presented. This protocol allows the herbicide resistance levels to be inferred and applied to a wide range of weed species and herbicides with minor adaptations.

视频: Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species

An Optimized Enrichment Technique for the Isolation of Arthrobacter Bacteriophage Species from Soil Sample Isolates

Bacteriophage isolation from environmental samples has been performed for decades using principles set forth by pioneers in microbiology. The isolation of phages infecting Arthrobacter hosts has been limited, perhaps due to the low success rate of many previous isolation techniques, resulting in an underrepresented group of Arthrobacter phages available for study. The enrichment technique described here, unlike many others, uses a filtered extract free of contaminating bacteria as the base for indicator bacteria growth, Arthrobactersp. KY3901, specifically. By first removing soil bacteria the target phages are not hindered by competition with native soil bacteria present in initial soil samples. This enrichment method has resulted in dozens of unique phages from several different soil types and even produced different types of phages from the same enriched soil sample isolate. The use of this procedure can be expanded to most nutrient rich aerobic media for the isolation of phages in a vast diversity of interesting host bacteria.

An Optimized Enrichment Technique for the Isolation of Arthrobacter Bacteriophage Species from Soil Sample Isolates

We present an enrichment protocol for the isolation of bacteriophages infecting bacteria in the Arthrobacter genus. This enrichment protocol produces fast and reproducible results for the isolation and amplification of Arthrobacter phages from soil isolates.

一种优化富集技术的隔离<em&gt;节杆菌</em&gt;噬菌体种从土壤样品隔离

Bacteriophage isolation from environmental samples has been performed for decades using principles set forth by pioneers in microbiology. The isolation of ...

科研

环境科学

Measuring Rates of Herbicide Metabolism in Dicot Weeds with an Excised Leaf Assay

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we developed an excised leaf assay combined with a vegetative cloning strategy to normalize herbicide uptake and remove translocation as contributing factors in herbicide-resistant (R) and &#8211;sensitive (S) waterhemp populations. Biokinetic analyses of organic pesticides in plants typically include the determination of uptake, translocation (delivery to the target site), metabolic fate, and interactions with the target site. Herbicide metabolism is an important parameter to measure in herbicide-resistant weeds and herbicide-tolerant crops, and is typically accomplished with whole-plant tests using radiolabeled herbicides. However, one difficulty with interpreting biokinetic parameters derived from whole-plant methods is that translocation is often affected by rates of herbicide metabolism, since polar metabolites are usually not mobile within the plant following herbicide detoxification reactions. Advantages of the protocol described in this manuscript include reproducible, accurate, and rapid determination of herbicide degradation rates in R and S populations, a substantial decrease in the amount of radiolabeled herbicide consumed, a large reduction in radiolabeled plant materials requiring further handling and disposal, and the ability to perform radiolabeled herbicide experiments in the lab or growth chamber instead of a greenhouse. As herbicide resistance continues to develop and spread in dicot weed populations worldwide, the excised leaf assay method developed and described herein will provide an invaluable technique for investigating non-target site-based resistance due to enhanced rates of herbicide metabolism and detoxification.

This manuscript describes how herbicide metabolism rates can be effectively quantified with excised leaves from a dicot weed, thereby reducing variability and removing any possible confounding effects of herbicide uptake or translocation typically observed in whole-plant assays.

测量除草剂代谢的双子叶杂草价格与切下的叶片分析

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we ...

Potentiodynamic Corrosion Testing

Different metallic materials have different polarization characteristics as dictated by the open circuit potential, breakdown potential, and passivation potential of the material. The detection of these electrochemical parameters identifies the corrosion factors of a material. A reliable and well-functioning corrosion system is required to achieve this.
Corrosion of the samples was achieved via a potentiodynamic polarization technique employing a three-electrode configuration, consisting of reference, counter, and working electrodes. Prior to commencement a baseline potential is obtained. Following the stabilization of the corrosion potential (Ecorr), the applied potential is ramped at a slow rate in the positive direction relative to the reference electrode. The working electrode was a stainless steel screw. The reference electrode was a standard Ag/AgCl. The counter electrode used was a platinum mesh. Having a reliable and well-functioning in vitro corrosion system to test biomaterials provides an in-expensive technique that allows for the systematic characterization of the material by determining the breakdown potential, to further understand the material's response to corrosion. The goal of the protocol is to set up and run an in vitro potentiodynamic corrosion system to analyze pitting corrosion for small metallic medical devices.

Here, we present a protocol to set up and run an in vitro potentiodynamic corrosion system to analyze pitting corrosion for small metallic medical devices.

动电位腐蚀试验

Different metallic materials have different polarization characteristics as dictated by the open circuit potential, breakdown potential, and passivation ...

Protocols for Quantifying Transferable Pesticide Residues in Turfgrass Systems

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes onto humans. For this reason, transferable pesticide residue experiments are required for registration and re-registration by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Although such experiments are required, limited specificity is required pertaining to experimental approach. Experimental approaches used to assess pesticide transfer to humans including hand wiping with cotton gloves, modified California roller (moving a roller of known mass over cotton cloth) and soccer ball roll (ball wrapped with sorbent strip) over three treated turfgrass species (creeping bentgrass, hybrid bermudagrass and tall fescue maintained at 0.4, 5 and 9 cm, respectively) are presented. The modified California roller is the most extensively utilized approach to date, and is best suited for use at low mowing heights due to its reproducibility and large sampling area. The soccer ball roll is a less aggressive transfer approach; however, it mimics a very common occurrence in the most popular international sport, and has many implications for nondietary pesticide exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Additionally, this approach may be adjusted for other athletic activities with limited modification. Hand wiping is the best approach to transfer pesticides at higher mowing heights, as roller-based approaches can lay blades over; however, it is more subjective due to more variable sampling pressure. Utility of these methods across turfgrass species is presented, and additional considerations to conduct transferable pesticide residue research in turfgrass systems are discussed.

Transferable pesticide residue experiments in turfgrass systems are integral components of human risk exposure assessments. Experimental approaches to measure transferable residues should be adjusted to the human interaction of interest and turfgrass system dynamics. Three transferable pesticide residue protocols are presented and the suitability across three turfgrass systems is discussed.

协议在草坪系统量化转换农药残留

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes ...

Dispersion of Nanomaterials in Aqueous Media: Towards Protocol Optimization

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and stability of the suspension. In this study, a systematic step-wise approach is carried out to identify optimal sonication conditions in order to achieve a stable dispersion. This approach has been adopted and shown to be suitable for several nanomaterials (cerium oxide, zinc oxide, and carbon nanotubes) dispersed in deionized (DI) water. However, with any change in either the nanomaterial type or dispersing medium, there needs to be optimization of the basic protocol by adjusting various factors such as sonication time, power, and sonicator type as well as temperature rise during the process. The approach records the dispersion process in detail. This is necessary to identify the time points as well as other above-mentioned conditions during the sonication process in which there may be undesirable changes, such as damage to the particle surface thus affecting surface properties. Our goal is to offer a harmonized approach that can control the quality of the final, produced dispersion. Such a guideline is instrumental in ensuring dispersion quality repeatability in the nanoscience community, particularly in the field of nanotoxicology.

Here, we present a step-wise protocol for the dispersion of nanomaterials in aqueous media with real-time characterization to identify the optimal sonication conditions, intensity, and duration for improved stability and uniformity of nanoparticle dispersions without impacting the sample integrity.

纳米材料在水介质中的分散: 对协议优化的研究

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and ...

RGB and Spectral Root Imaging for Plant Phenotyping and Physiological Research: Experimental Setup and Imaging Protocols

Better understanding of plant root dynamics is essential to improve resource use efficiency of agricultural systems and increase the resistance of crop cultivars against environmental stresses. An experimental protocol is presented for RGB and hyperspectral imaging of root systems. The approach uses rhizoboxes where plants grow in natural soil over a longer time to observe fully developed root systems. Experimental settings are exemplified for assessing rhizobox plants under water stress and studying the role of roots. An RGB imaging setup is described for cheap and quick quantification of root development over time. Hyperspectral imaging improves root segmentation from the soil background compared to RGB color based thresholding. The particular strength of hyperspectral imaging is the acquisition of chemometric information on the root-soil system for functional understanding. This is demonstrated with high resolution water content mapping. Spectral imaging however is more complex in image acquisition, processing and analysis compared to the RGB approach. A combination of both methods can optimize a comprehensive assessment of the root system. Application examples integrating root and aboveground traits are given for the context of plant phenotyping and plant physiological research. Further improvement of root imaging can be obtained by optimizing RGB image quality with better illumination using different light sources and by extension of image analysis methods to infer on root zone properties from spectral data.

An experimental protocol is presented for assessment of soil grown plant root systems with RGB and hyperspectral imaging. Combination of RGB image time series with chemometric information from hyperspectral scans optimizes insights into plant root dynamics.

RGB 和光谱根成像植物表型和生理研究： 实验装置和成像协议

Better understanding of plant root dynamics is essential to improve resource use efficiency of agricultural systems and increase the resistance of crop ...

Ecosystem Fabrication (EcoFAB) Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A better mechanistic understanding of these complex plant-microbe interactions will be crucial to improving plant production as well as performing basic ecological studies investigating plant-soil-microbe interactions. Here, a detailed description for ecosystem fabrication is presented, using widely available 3D printing technologies, to create controlled laboratory habitats (EcoFABs) for mechanistic studies of plant-microbe interactions within specific environmental conditions. Two sizes of EcoFABs are described that are suited for the investigation of microbial interactions with various plant species, including Arabidopsis thaliana, Brachypodium distachyon, and Panicum virgatum. These flow-through devices allow for controlled manipulation and sampling of root microbiomes, root chemistry as well as imaging of root morphology and microbial localization. This protocol includes the details for maintaining sterile conditions inside EcoFABs and mounting independent LED light systems onto EcoFABs. Detailed methods for addition of different forms of media, including soils, sand, and liquid growth media coupled to the characterization of these systems using imaging and metabolomics are described. Together, these systems enable dynamic and detailed investigation of plant and plant-microbial consortia including the manipulation of microbiome composition (including mutants), the monitoring of plant growth, root morphology, exudate composition, and microbial localization under controlled environmental conditions. We anticipate that these detailed protocols will serve as an important starting point for other researchers, ideally helping create standardized experimental systems for investigating plant-microbe interactions.

Ecosystem Fabrication EcoFAB Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

This article describes detailed protocols for ecosystem fabrication of devices (EcoFABs) that enable the studies of plants and plant-microbe interactions in highly controlled laboratory conditions.

用于研究植物-微生物相互作用的实验室生态系统制造 (EcoFAB) 协议

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A ...

Composition and Distribution Analysis of Bioaerosols Under Different Environmental Conditions

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, we described a protocol for multiple analyses of the biological compositions in environmental PM. Five experiments are presented: (1) PM number monitoring by using a laser particle counter; (2) PM collection by using a cyclonic aerosol sampler; (3) PM collection by using a high-volume air sampler with filters; (4) culturable microbes collection by the Andersen six-stage sampler; and (5) detection of biological composition of environmental PM by bacterial 16SrDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing. We selected hazy days and a livestock farm as two typical examples of the application in this protocol. In this study, these two sampling methods, cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler, showed different sampling efficiency. The cyclonic aerosol sampler performed much better in terms of collecting bacteria, while these two methods showed the same efficiency in collecting fungi. Filter samplers can work under low temperature conditions while cyclonic aerosol samplers have a sampling limitation for temperature. A solid impacting sampler, such as an Andersen six-stage sampler, can be used to sample bioaerosols directly into the culture medium, which increases the survival rate of culturable microorganisms. However, this method mainly relies on culture while more than 99% of microbes cannot be cultured. DNA extracted from the culturable bacteria collected by the Andersen six-stage sampler and samples collected by cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler were detected by bacterial 16S rDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing.All the methods above may have wide application in many fields of study, such as environmental monitoring and airborne pathogen detection. From these results, we can conclude that these methods can be used under different conditions and may help other researchers further explore the health impacts of environmental bioaerosols.

Understanding the biological composition of environmental particulate matter is important for the study of its significant impacts on human health and disease spread. Here, we used three types of bioaerosol sampling methods and a biological analysis of airborne microbes to better explore airborne microbial communities under different environmental conditions.

不同环境条件下生物气溶胶的组成及分布分析

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, ...

Identifying Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemical Species with a Combined Targeted and Non-Targeted-Screening High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Workflow

Historical and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have garnered significant interest from the public and government agencies from the local to federal levels. The continuing evolution of PFAS chemistries presents a challenge to the environmental monitoring, where ongoing development of targeted methods necessarily lags the discovery of new chemical compounds. There is a need, therefore, to have forward-looking methodologies that can detect emerging and unexpected compounds, monitor these species over time, and resolve details of their chemical structure to enable future work in human health. To this end, non-targeted analysis by high-resolution mass spectrometry offers a broad base detection approach that can be combined with almost any sample preparation scheme and provides significant capabilities for compound identification after detection. Herein, we describe a solid-phase extraction (SPE) based sample concentration method tuned for shorter chain and more hydrophilic PFAS chemistries, such as per fluorinated ether acids and sulfonates, and describe analysis of samples prepared in this fashion in both targeted and non-targeted modes. Targeted methods provide superior quantification when reference standards are available but are intrinsically limited to expected compounds when performing analysis. In contrast, a non-targeted approach can identify the presence of unexpected compounds and provide some information about their chemical structure. Information about chemical features can be used to correlate compounds across sample locations and track abundance and occurrence over time.

Here, we present a protocol for the sequential targeted quantification and non-targeted analysis of fluorinated compounds in water by mass spectrometry. This methodology provides quantitative levels of known fluorochemical compounds and identifies unknown chemicals in related samples with semi-quantitative estimates of their abundance.

利用目标筛选和非靶向筛选高分辨率质谱相结合的工作流程识别跨氟和多氟化学物种

Historical and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have garnered significant interest from the public and government agencies from the ...

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides in attempts to control its populations eliminates natural enemies and competitor flower thrips species, thereby increasing its populations. An unsustainable situation develops with concomitant resistant pest populations, secondary pest outbreaks, and environmental degradation. Integrated pest management utilizes knowledge of pest and natural enemy relationships to implement tactics that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. Minute pirate bugs are the most important worldwide predators of thrips. They can suppress and ultimately control Frankliniella species flower thrips. Flower samples taken at least weekly are needed to understand predator-prey dynamics. Shown here is the sampling of the flowers of fruiting vegetables and companion plants to estimate the densities of individual thrips and minute pirate bug species. Representative data illustrates how the protocol is used to determine the efficacy of management tactics over time and how to evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs. The sampling protocol is similarly adaptable to sampling thrips and minute pirate bugs in other plant species hosts.

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

Presented here is a protocol to determine the number of thrips and minute pirate bug predators in crops over multiple dates in field experiments. Also illustrated is how to determine the efficacy of management tactics against thrips and evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs.

现场实验中估计富兰克林菌种花纹和奥里乌斯物种捕食者的取样

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides ...