这项工作是由国立耳聋与其他交流障碍补助R21DC013915和R01DC012502，在加拿大自然科学和工程研究理事会和欧盟第七框架计划（FP7 / 2007-2013赠款协议没有根据欧洲研究理事会的支持。339152 ）。

目前的实验方案如下根据耶鲁大学人权调查委员会的道德行为准则。 1. Electroenchephalopgaphy（EEG）的制备<ol><li>测量头的大小来确定合适的EEG帽。 </li><li>通过找到鼻根和INION之间的中点用卷尺识别顶点的位置。 </li><li>使用预先确定的顶点例如CZ放置在头上的EEG帽。用卷尺为已完成1.2放置盖后再次检查锆石。注意，EEG帽配有电极持有者和安置的64个电极（或持有者）是基于改性：10-20系统预先指定的坐标系统基于锆石11。 注：此代表应用程序使用64电极配置，以评估头皮分布的变化和来源分析。对于较简单的应用程序（在幅度和延迟事件关联电位的变化）USING少的电极是可能的。有对地面在这里使用的脑电图系统两个附加电极。那些电极夹头也包括在帽。 </li><li>在使用一次性注射器的电极持有者应用电极凝胶。 </li><li>附上EEG电极（包括接地电极）插入电极座匹配电极和电极帽的电极夹上的标签。 </li><li>清洁皮肤表面用酒精垫。 注意：对于用于检测眼运动（眼电图），皮肤位置是上方和​​下方的右眼（垂直眼运动），以及横向于双眼的外眦（水平眼运动）电极;对于躯体感觉刺激皮肤横向于口服角度被清洁。 </li><li>填与电极凝胶四眼电图电极和固定电极用双面胶带在1.6指出的地点。 </li><li>安全使用尼龙带所有电极电缆。若Required，用胶带将电缆参与者的身体或不引入任何额外的电气或机械噪声的其他位置。 </li><li>放置参与者显示器前，机器人的体感刺激。重新紧固所有电极线为1.8。 </li><li>连接脑电和眼电图电极（含接地电极）到相应的connecters（匹配的标签和连接器形状）的脑电图系统的功放盒。 </li><li>检查以查看所述EEG信号是工件自由并且该偏移值是在可接受的范围内（&lt;50微伏或更小）。如果发现有噪声的信号，或大偏移，通常是表明为高阻抗，正确通过添加额外的脑电图凝胶和/或重新定位的头发，其直接在电极下的那些电极的信号。 </li><li>将脑电图兼容的耳机和确认声级是在一个舒适的范围内基于主题报告。 </li></ol><p类=“jove_title”&gt; 2。体感刺激注：目前的协议适用于面部皮肤伸展躯体感觉刺激的目的。实验装置与脑电图系统示于图1。躯体感觉刺激装置的细节，在以前的研究1,7,12-14已经描述。简言之，将两个小塑料卡（宽2厘米和3厘米高度）附着用双面胶带贴到面部皮肤。该卡使用字符串连接到机器人设备。机器人根据实验设计产生系统性的皮肤拉伸负荷。为建立协议的ERP记录如下： <ol><li>将参与者的头部在头枕，以刺激过程中尽量减少头部运动。小心取出参与者的头部与头枕之间的电极线。 </li><li>请参与者持有机器人的安全开关。 </li><li>附加塑料把手，目标皮肤位置用双面胶带为躯体感觉刺激。为代表导致12,13，其中目标是皮肤横向于口服角度，放置在蜗轴的翼片的中心，有几个毫米横向于口腔角与中心翼片的在大致相同的高度的口服角度。 </li><li>调整，以避免EEG电极和电缆的串，串支撑和机器人的配置。 </li><li>由于刺激（通常观察到相对大的振幅和频率低的电响应比）申请几个面部皮肤伸展（一个循环正弦在3赫兹以4N的最大的力）来检查工件。如果文物在脑电信号观察，回到2.4。 </li></ol> 3. ERP记录<ol><li>解释了实验任务的主体和提供实践试验（1块= 10次试验或更少），以确认是否标的理解过程显然rstands任务。 注：该实验任务和刺激呈现的ERP记录在软件刺激呈现preprogramed。 <ol><li>在代表性的测试与综合体感和听觉刺激12，适用于皮肤变形关联到皮肤横向到口腔角度的体感刺激。舒展的模式是一个周期的正弦曲线（3赫兹）为4 N.单一的合成语音的就是中途“ 头 ”与一个10步声连续“ 已经”被用于听觉刺激最大力量。 </li><li>单独或组合呈现两个刺激。在组合的刺激下，测试3发病定时（90毫秒超前和滞后，和同时在体感和听觉声母： 参见图3A）。 </li><li>随机五个刺激的呈现（体感孤单，独自听觉和三个结合：铅，SIMULT和L股份公司）。有所不同，以避免预期和习惯化1000和2000毫秒之间的试验间隔。实验任务是通过按下键盘上的键，以确定所呈现的语言声音，其是介于“头”声学中间和声音是否“ 有&#39;，为”头“，在体感单独条件，其中有没有听觉刺激，参与者被指示回答不是“ 头”。 </li><li>记录参与者的判断，并使用该软件进行刺激呈现的刺激发病的按键反应时间。请参与者在注视显示屏上的固定点，以减少因眼球运动伪影。 </li><li>拆下固定点每10刺激了短暂的休息。 （见的任务和刺激呈现12,13的还有其他例子） </li></ol></li><li>启动软件，ERP记录在512赫兹抽样，其中还记录了刺激的起效时间ERP数据的时间轴。需要注意的是刺激，也包括有关的刺激的类型的信息的时间标记，发送用于从软件刺激呈现每刺激。这两个程序（ERP记录和刺激演示）都是对通过并​​行端口连接的两个独立的PC上运行。 </li><li>设置软件的体感刺激触发等待模式，然后通过激活软件刺激呈现开始刺激呈现。注意，该软件用于体感的刺激也单独的PC上运行，从其他两个电脑。每个条件记录100的ERP。 注意：一个触发信号的体感的刺激通过连接到数字输出装置中的PC进行感官刺激的模拟输入装置被接收。单体感刺激每一个触发产生。&lt;/ LI&gt; </ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

这里报道的研究提供的证据表明是受面部皮肤变形所产生精确控制的体感刺激诱导皮层的ERP。皮肤传入是被称为动觉信息3,4人体肢体运动5,6和言语运动7,8,21的丰富来源。拉伸面部皮肤中反映讲话时的实际运动方向的方式诱导肌肉感觉类似于相应的动作。目前相结合的方法精确控制皮肤的拉伸和ERP录音可以用于在广泛讲话的行为进行调查颜面部功能的神经基础。 <p class="j...

言语生产是依赖于听觉和体感的信息。听觉和体感反馈的组合出现由婴儿产生的最早发声并且都参与了言语运动学习。最近的研究结果表明，体感过程有助于感知以及生产。例如，语音识别，当机器人装置拉伸面部皮肤作为参与者听听觉刺激1声音被改变。空气喷到与听觉言语刺激相一致的脸颊改变参与者的感性判断2。 这些体感效果涉及响应于皮肤变形皮肤机械性的激活。运动期间，皮肤变形以各种方式，和皮肤机械性是已知的促进肌肉感觉3,4。皮肤机械感受器的动觉作用是妖由最近的调查结果5-7，该运动相关的皮肤的菌株被适当地视为屈曲或伸展运动取决于皮肤伸展6的图 ​​案strated。在言语动作训练，这是伴面部皮肤弹力语音特定语音的重复过程中，关节模式的改变以自适应方式7。这些研究表明，行动期间调节皮肤伸展提供了评价皮肤传入到感觉系统的动觉功能的贡献的方法。 对颜面部皮肤机械性的运动知觉功能使用心理生理的方法7,8和微电极由感觉神经9,10重新编写了研究居多。这里，当前协议着重于与面部皮肤变形和事件相关电位（ERP）的记录相关联的口面体感刺激的结合。钍是程序有精确的实验控制面部皮肤变形的使用计算机控制的机器人装置的方向和定时。这使我们可以由双方讲话运动学习期间在广泛取向选择性和精确地变形的面部皮肤测试即将语音产生和感知躯体感觉贡献特定假说，并直接在语音生成和感知。 ERP系统记录用于无创地感评价刺激对口颌面行为的影响的时间模式和定时。目前的协议，然后可以评估动觉功能的神经关联和评估体感系统这两个语音处理，言语产生和言语感知的贡献。 要显示的皮肤伸展刺激的ERP记录应用程序的用途，下列方案着重于躯体感觉和听觉输入的语音P上的相互作用erception。结果突出显示，以评估语音体感听觉相互作用提供了新思路。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="673">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EEG recording system</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Biosemi</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">ActiveTwo</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Robotic decice for skin stretch</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Geomagic</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Phantom Premium 1.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EEG-compatible earphones</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Etymotic research</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">ER3A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Software for visual and auditory stimulation</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Neurobehavioral Systems</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Presentation</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Electrode gel</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Parker Laboratories, INC</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Signa gel</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Double sided tape</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">3M</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">1522</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Disposable syringe</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Monoject</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">412 Curved Tip</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Analog input device</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">National Instuments&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">PCI-6036E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Degital output device</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">Measurement computing</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">USB-1208FS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

somatosensory event-related potentials from orofacial skin stretch stimulation

Cortical processing associated with orofacial somatosensory function in speech has received limited experimental attention due to the difficulty of providing precise and controlled stimulation. This article introduces a technique for recording somatosensory event-related potentials (ERP) that uses a novel mechanical stimulation method involving skin deformation using a robotic device. Controlled deformation of the facial skin is used to modulate kinesthetic inputs through excitation of cutaneous mechanoreceptors. By combining somatosensory stimulation with electroencephalographic recording, somatosensory evoked responses can be successfully measured at the level of the cortex. Somatosensory stimulation can be combined with the stimulation of other sensory modalities to assess multisensory interactions. For speech, orofacial stimulation is combined with speech sound stimulation to assess the contribution of multi-sensory processing including the effects of timing differences. The ability to precisely control orofacial somatosensory stimulation during speech perception and speech production with ERP recording is an important tool that provides new insight into the neural organization and neural representations for speech.

本节介绍针对体感刺激的面部皮肤变形产生的代表性事件相关电位。实验装置示于图1。正弦刺激施加到面部皮肤横向于口服角度（参见图3A作为参考）。录每个参与者与12名参加者在总测试一百拉伸试验。除去脱机上的水平和垂直眼电图信号的基础上加上闪烁和眼球运动伪影的试验后（超过±150μV），试验超过85％的平均?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Somatosensory Event-related Potentials from Orofacial Skin Stretch Stimulation at JoVE.com

Somatosensory Event-related Potentials from Orofacial Skin Stretch Stimulation

This paper introduces a method for obtaining somatosensory event-related potentials following orofacial skin stretch stimulation. The current method can be used to evaluate the contribution of somatosensory afferents to both speech production and speech perception.

从口面皮肤牵拉刺激体感事件相关电位

Cortical processing associated with orofacial somatosensory function in speech has received limited experimental attention due to the difficulty of ...

somatosensory-event-related-potentials-from-orofacial-skin-stretch

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.1K 次观看.  Haskins Laboratories. This paper introduces a method for obtaining somatosensory event-related potentials following orofacial skin stretch stimulation. The current method can be used to evaluate the contribution of somatosensory afferents to both speech production and speech perception.

视频: Somatosensory Event-related Potentials from Orofacial Skin Stretch Stimulation

High Density Event-related Potential  Data Acquisition in Cognitive Neuroscience

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is currently the standard method of evaluating brain function in the field of Cognitive Neuroscience, in part because fMRI data acquisition and analysis techniques are readily available. Because fMRI has excellent spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution, this method can only be used to identify the spatial location of brain activity associated with a given cognitive process (and reveals virtually nothing about the time course of brain activity). By contrast, event-related potential (ERP) recording, a method that is used much less frequently than fMRI, has excellent temporal resolution and thus can track rapid temporal modulations in neural activity. Unfortunately, ERPs are under utilized in Cognitive Neuroscience because data acquisition techniques are not readily available and low density ERP recording has poor spatial resolution. In an effort to foster the increased use of ERPs in Cognitive Neuroscience, the present article details key techniques involved in high density ERP data acquisition. Critically, high density ERPs offer the promise of excellent temporal resolution and good spatial resolution (or excellent spatial resolution if coupled with fMRI), which is necessary to capture the spatial-temporal dynamics of human brain function.

Event-related potential (ERP) recording is under utilized in Cognitive Neuroscience because data acquisition techniques are not readily available and this method often has poor spatial resolution. To foster the increased use of ERPs in Cognitive Neuroscience, the present article details key techniques involved in high density ERP data acquisition.

高密度事件相关电位在认知神经科学的数据采集

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is currently the standard method of evaluating brain function in the field of Cognitive Neuroscience, in part ...

科研

神经科学

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

结合经颅磁刺激和功能磁共振成像检查默认模式网络

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

TMS：使用的Theta突发协议，以探索个人与脆性X综合征与孤独症的可塑性Mechasnism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a non-invasive and safe alternative to change cortical excitability2. The effects of one session of tDCS can last for several minutes, and its effects depend on polarity of stimulation, such as that cathodal stimulation induces a decrease in cortical excitability, and anodal stimulation induces an increase in cortical excitability that may last beyond the duration of stimulation6. These effects have been explored in cognitive neuroscience and also clinically in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders &#x2013; especially when applied over several consecutive sessions4. One area that has been attracting attention of neuroscientists and clinicians is the use of tDCS for modulation of pain-related neural networks3,5. Modulation of two main cortical areas in pain research has been explored: primary motor cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex7. Due to the critical role of electrode montage, in this article, we show different alternatives for electrode placement for tDCS clinical trials on pain; discussing advantages and disadvantages of each method of stimulation.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is an established technique to modulate cortical excitability1,2. It has been used as an investigative tool in neuroscience due to its effects on cortical plasticity, easy operation, and safe profile. One area that tDCS has been showing encouraging results is pain alleviation 3-5.

经颅直接电流刺激电极定位和蒙太奇

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a ...

Applications of EEG Neuroimaging Data: Event-related Potentials, Spectral Power, and Multiscale Entropy

When considering human neuroimaging data, an appreciation of signal variability represents a fundamental innovation in the way we think about brain signal. Typically, researchers represent the brain's response as the mean across repeated experimental trials and disregard signal fluctuations over time as "noise". However, it is becoming clear that brain signal variability conveys meaningful functional information about neural network dynamics. This article describes the novel method of multiscale entropy (MSE) for quantifying brain signal variability. MSE may be particularly informative of neural network dynamics because it shows timescale dependence and sensitivity to linear and nonlinear dynamics in the data.

Neuroimaging researchers typically consider the brain's response as the mean activity across repeated experimental trials and disregard signal variability over time as "noise". However, it is becoming clear that there is signal in that noise. This article describes the novel method of multiscale entropy for quantifying brain signal variability in the time domain.

脑电图神经影像数据：事件相关电位，光谱功率，和多尺度熵的应用

When considering human neuroimaging data, an appreciation of signal variability represents a fundamental innovation in the way we think about brain ...

Optogenetic Activation of Zebrafish Somatosensory Neurons using ChEF-tdTomato

Larval zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function of simple neural circuits. Due to their external fertilization, rapid development, and translucency, zebrafish are particularly well suited for optogenetic approaches to investigate neural circuit function. In this approach, light-sensitive ion channels are expressed in specific neurons, enabling the experimenter to activate or inhibit them at will and thus assess their contribution to specific behaviors. Applying these methods in larval zebrafish is conceptually simple but requires the optimization of technical details. Here we demonstrate a procedure for expressing a channelrhodopsin variant in larval zebrafish somatosensory neurons, photo-activating single cells, and recording the resulting behaviors. By introducing a few modifications to previously established methods, this approach could be used to elicit behavioral responses from single neurons activated up to at least 4 days post-fertilization (dpf). Specifically, we created a transgene using a somatosensory neuron enhancer, CREST3, to drive the expression of the tagged channelrhodopsin variant, ChEF-tdTomato. Injecting this transgene into 1-cell stage embryos results in mosaic expression in somatosensory neurons, which can be imaged with confocal microscopy. Illuminating identified cells in these animals with light from a 473 nm DPSS laser, guided through a fiber optic cable, elicits behaviors that can be recorded with a high-speed video camera and analyzed quantitatively. This technique could be adapted to study behaviors elicited by activating any zebrafish neuron. Combining this approach with genetic or pharmacological perturbations will be a powerful way to investigate circuit formation and function.

Optogenetic techniques have made it possible to study the contribution of specific neurons to behavior. We describe a method in larval zebrafish for activating single somatosensory neurons expressing a channelrhodopsin variant (ChEF) with a diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) laser and recording the elicited behaviors with a high-speed video camera.

Optogenetic激活斑马鱼的体感神经元使用厨师tdTomato的

Larval  zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function  of simple neural circuits. Due to their  external fertilization, ...

Extracting Visual Evoked Potentials from EEG Data Recorded During fMRI-guided Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is an effective method for establishing a causal link between a cortical area and cognitive/neurophysiological effects. Specifically, by creating a transient interference with the normal activity of a target region and measuring changes in an electrophysiological signal, we can establish a causal link between the stimulated brain area or network and the electrophysiological signal that we record. If target brain areas are functionally defined with prior fMRI scan, TMS could be used to link the fMRI activations with evoked potentials recorded. However, conducting such experiments presents significant technical challenges given the high amplitude artifacts introduced into the EEG signal by the magnetic pulse, and the difficulty to successfully target areas that were functionally defined by fMRI. Here we describe a methodology for combining these three common tools: TMS, EEG, and fMRI. We explain how to guide the stimulator&#39;s coil to the desired target area using anatomical or functional MRI data, how to record EEG during concurrent TMS, how to design an ERP study suitable for EEG-TMS combination and how to extract reliable ERP from the recorded data. We will provide representative results from a previously published study, in which fMRI-guided TMS was used concurrently with EEG to show that the face-selective N1 and the body-selective N1 component of the ERP are associated with distinct neural networks in extrastriate cortex. This method allows us to combine the high spatial resolution of fMRI with the high temporal resolution of TMS and EEG and therefore obtain a comprehensive understanding of the neural basis of various cognitive processes.

This paper describes a method for collecting and analyzing electroencephalography (EEG) data during concurrent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) guided by activations revealed with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). A method for TMS artifact removal and extraction of event related potentials is described as well as considerations in paradigm design and experimental setup.

提取脑电数据视觉诱发电位记录在功能磁共振成像引导下经颅磁刺激

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is an effective method for establishing a causal link between a cortical area and cognitive/neurophysiological ...

Recording Single Neurons' Action Potentials from Freely Moving Pigeons Across Three Stages of Learning

While the subject of learning has attracted immense interest from both behavioral and neural scientists, only relatively few investigators have observed single-neuron activity while animals are acquiring an operantly conditioned response, or when that response is extinguished. But even in these cases, observation periods usually encompass only a single stage of learning, i.e. acquisition or extinction, but not both (exceptions include protocols employing reversal learning; see Bingman&#160;et al.1 for an example). However, acquisition and extinction entail different learning mechanisms and are therefore expected to be accompanied by different types and/or loci of neural plasticity.
Accordingly, we developed a behavioral paradigm which institutes three stages of learning in a single behavioral session and which is well suited for the simultaneous recording of single neurons&#39; action potentials. Animals are trained on a single-interval forced choice task which requires mapping each of two possible choice responses to the presentation of different novel visual stimuli (acquisition). After having reached a predefined performance criterion, one of the two choice responses is no longer reinforced (extinction). Following a certain decrement in performance level, correct responses are reinforced again (reacquisition). By using a new set of stimuli in every session, animals can undergo the acquisition-extinction-reacquisition process repeatedly. Because all three stages of learning occur in a single behavioral session, the paradigm is ideal for the simultaneous observation of the spiking output of multiple single neurons. We use pigeons as model systems, but the task can easily be adapted to any other species capable of conditioned discrimination learning.

Recording Single Neurons&#039; Action Potentials from Freely Moving Pigeons Across Three Stages of Learning

Learning new stimulus-response associations engages a wide range of neural processes which are ultimately reflected in changing spike output of individual neurons. Here we describe a behavioral protocol allowing for the continuous registration of single-neuron activity while animals acquire, extinguish, and reacquire a conditioned response within a single experimental session.

自由移动鸽子穿越三个阶段学习记录单个神经元&#39;动作电位

While the subject of learning has attracted immense interest from both behavioral and neural scientists, only relatively few investigators have observed ...

Analysis of Developing Tooth Germ Innervation Using Microfluidic Co-culture Devices

Innervation plays a key role in the development, homeostasis and regeneration of organs and tissues. However, the mechanisms underlying these phenomena are not well understood yet. In particular, the role of innervation in tooth development and regeneration is neglected.
Several in vivo studies have provided important information about the patterns of innervation of dental tissues during development and repair processes of various animal models. However, most of these approaches are not optimal to highlight the molecular basis of the interactions between nerve fibres and target organs and tissues.
Co-cultures constitute a valuable method to investigate and manipulate the interactions between nerve fibres and teeth in a controlled and isolated environment. In the last decades, conventional co-cultures using the same culture medium have been performed for very short periods (e.g., two days) to investigate the attractive or repulsive effects of developing oral and dental tissues on sensory nerve fibres. However, extension of the culture period is required to investigate the effects of innervation on tooth morphogenesis and cytodifferentiation.
Microfluidics systems allow co-cultures of neurons and different cell types in their appropriate culture media. We have recently demonstrated that trigeminal ganglia (TG) and teeth are able to survive for a long period of time when co-cultured in microfluidic devices, and that they maintain in these conditions the same innervation pattern that they show in vivo.
On this basis, we describe how to isolate and co-culture developing trigeminal ganglia and tooth germs in a microfluidic co-culture system.This protocol describes a simple and flexible way to co-culture ganglia/nerves and target tissues and to study the roles of specific molecules on such interactions in a controlled and isolated environment.

Co-cultures represent a valuable method to study the interactions between nerves and target tissues and organs. Microfluidic systems allow co-culturing ganglia and whole developing organs or tissues in different culture media, thus representing a valuable tool for the in vitro study of the crosstalk between neurons and their targets.

微流控采用共培养开发设备牙胚支配分析

Innervation plays a key role in the development, homeostasis and regeneration of organs and tissues. However, the mechanisms underlying these phenomena ...

How to Find Effects of Stimulus Processing on Event Related Brain Potentials of Close Others when Hyperscanning Partners

The partners of each pair must be able to pass the McGill Friendship Questionnaire without communicating. Each partner is then seated in front of a screen in one of two adjacent rooms. These rooms are separated by a glass window through which participants communicate to maintain feelings of togetherness while being fitted with the EEG cap. After checking for adequate EEG signals, the glass is covered by a curtain to prevent visual communication. Then, partners must be silent but are instructed to try to feel in the presence of their partner during the entire experiment. Just before it starts, participants are told that each of them will be presented with one image at a time and that these images will occur at the same time for both of them on their own screen. They are also instructed that, for each trial, the simultaneous images will always be different. However, unbeknownst to them, trials are randomized: only half of them are consistent with this instruction and actually include two different images. These trials form the DSC, that is, the different-stimuli condition. The other half of the trials are inconsistent with the instruction. They include two identical images and form the ISC (identical-stimuli condition). After the experiment, participants are sorted into two groups: those who reported that they felt in the presence of their partner during the majority of the trials and those who reported they did not. The impact of the stimulus processing of the partner is found by subtracting the mean voltages of the ERPs of the ISC (inconsistent with the instructions) from the ERPs of the DSC (consistent with the instructions) in at least two time windows (TWs): firstly, in the 75 to 150 ms TW, where the absolute values of these subtractions are greater, especially at right frontal sites, in those who felt in the presence of their partner than in those who did not; secondly, in the LPP time window (i.e., from 650 to 950 ms post onset), where ERPs are significantly less positive in the DSC than in the ISC in those in whom the raw results of the early (75-150ms) subtractions are negative.

This protocol describes key steps involved in assessing the sensitivity of the brain of one person to the stimulus processing of a close other by selecting pairs of partners, recording their electroencephalogram (EEG) simultaneously and computing their event-related brain potentials (ERPs).

Hyperscanning 合作伙伴时如何发现刺激处理对近距离活动相关脑电位的影响

The partners of each pair must be able to pass the McGill Friendship Questionnaire without communicating. Each partner is then seated in front of a screen ...