The authors thank daycare centers (Wasko, Alblasserwaard) for their support in recruiting the control group, and Mark Vonk for his help in data collection in the control group. The authors also thank the children from the control group and the children who are clients from Royal Dutch Visio for participation in the study. The authors are grateful to the children and their parents for participation in the video.
The development of the method was supported by a grant from the Novum Foundation: a non-profit organization providing financial support to (research) projects that improve the quality of life of individuals with a visual impairment (www.stichtingnovum.org). Financial support for the current study was provided by 'ZonMw Inzicht' (Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development-Insight Society), grant number: 60-00635-98-10.

这里描述的协议是经Erasmus医学中心，鹿特丹医学伦理研究委员会，荷兰（MEC 2012-097）。该程序遵循赫尔辛基（2013年）对涉及人类受试者的研究宣言的原则。 1.视觉刺激<ol><li>选择一组视觉刺激， 也就是说 ，图像和电影的目标基本动眼神经功能和视觉处理功能的处理。 </li><li>使用图像和影片评价基本动眼神经功能，如固定，扫视，追求平稳，并视动性眼球震颤。当检测到动眼神经功能异常，考虑到数据分析和解释这一点。 <ol><li>使用图像来评估固定和扫视。本范例包含的视觉角度3°的半径，这是在左侧的显示器，右，上，下​​半呈现笑脸图像。 </li><li> ü瑟一个缓慢移动的图像，以评估顺利的追求。本范例包含在正弦水平方向和垂直方向在监视器移动16º，具有4º/秒的速度的表情图标电影。 </li><li>用电影来评估视动震颤见长。本范例包含在向左和向右的方向移动黑色和白色的正弦光栅的电影。 </li></ol></li><li>使用图片和电影，以评估视觉处理功能， 例如，对比度，颜色，形状或运动形式。 </li><li>使用一组是基于4-替代被迫选择优先注视范式（4-AFC PL 19）的视觉刺激。在本范例中，4刺激角（ 即，左上和右象限，左下和右上象限）分别表示一个替代的选择， 即 ，目标区域。每个目标区域具有6º的半径，并从其他3象限的不同相对于特定的视觉信息，例如 ，基于对比度，颜色，形状或运动。下面视觉刺激可以用作一个例子: <ol><li>使用图像评估表的一致性处理:图像与随机取向短白皮线（0.2º点¯x0.6º;密度4.3线/度2）数组黑色背景。在目标区域中的所有行被布置在一个圆的形状。 </li><li>使用影片，以评估局部运动处理:电影与黑/白图案的正方形靶，用2.3º一个视角，对同样图案化的背景下，在2.5º在一个象限中移动2.5º向左和向右/秒。 </li><li>使用影片来评估全局运动的处理:图像与白点（直径0.25º，密度2.6点/度2）从朝向显示器的边界的目标区域的中心扩展的阵列。的点移到一个黑色的背景与11.8º/秒的速度和有限的寿命的0.4秒。 </li><li>使用图像来评估对比度检测:以0％的亮度（黑色）中的目标区域隐藏海蒂图像的图像，对75％（浅灰色）的亮度的背景。 </li><li>使用图像来评估检测颜色:图像与目标区域中的绿色的数17，对红色黄色背景。 </li><li>用电影来评估同时进行视觉处理， 例如 ，一个卡通:丰富多彩的，高对比度的画面与4.5º点¯x9.0º（宽度x高度的视角（与许可迪克·布鲁纳，Mercis BV，荷兰阿姆斯特丹转载） ）移动1.5º上下在目标区域3º/秒的速度，在黑色背景。 注:为清楚起见，本文代表结果将集中在包含各种类型的视觉信息（ 图1）高度显着卡通的刺激。对于其他视觉刺激的图片，请与先前的研究20 </s了&gt;。 </li></ol></li></ol><img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig1.jpg" /> 图1.卡通刺激。卡通刺激包含各种视觉方式（形式，动作，色彩和对比度）。这种刺激触发视觉注意，并在儿童提供最快的响应时间。叠加是一个眼动（灰色），从显示器的左下角进入在右上角的目标区域（ 即反身应对刺激）。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> 基于跟踪 - 2.眼测试范式<ol><li>选择适合儿童人群（ 如 ，无创伤，耐受性头部运动，和易用性）12眼跟踪系统。这通常需要远距离红外眼动仪（ 如 ，Tobii的T60XL，SMI RED）10,11。 </li><li>选择广角尺寸的电脑显示器，充分显示每个刺激（中24º点¯x30º 即最小的视觉角度60厘米观看距离）。远程眼跟踪器或者与显示器集成在一起，或者可以单独给监视器被连接。 注:远程眼动仪发出正在使用角膜反射采样的红外光。的〜60赫兹的眼动追踪采样率一般足以研究的注视行为模式在儿童身上。 </li><li>通过组装显示器和远程眼球跟踪系统连接到笔记本电脑或台式机的移动测量设置。 </li><li>在PC上安装一个兼容的软件程序（ 例如，Tobii Studio的，iView中）对视觉刺激的介绍和眼球运动的记录。 </li><li>设计包含所需要的测试动眼神经功能和/或可视处理功能的全部刺激类型的测试序列（见协议第1步:视觉刺激）。本实施例包含了在步骤1， 即 ，9个在总描述的所有刺激类型。 <ol><li>将不同类型的视觉刺激在测试顺序随机排列，但要确保目标区域交替从审判审判的位置。这确保用于使反射眼球运动到目标的需要。 </li><li>呈现每个刺激的至少4倍（ 即 ，与目标区域中的每个象限至少一次），并在至少4秒，以便有足够的时间来使眼睛运动的响应。在本实施例中，卡通刺激示16次，而所有其他刺激示的4倍。这就增加了总共48个刺激介绍和〜3.5分钟的总测试时间。 注:重复演示增加每个刺激和在孩子的视野每个目标区域取样足够的凝视点的机会。一般情况下，凝视数据F的可用性或需要刺激演示中的至少25％，以确保可靠的结果21。 </li><li>使每个序列确认测试时间不超过约5分钟长，因为一旦测试序列正在运行时，它可以不被暂停。优选使该可连续运行两个序列，以提供一个休息期中途。 注:要测试，现在音频或音提示显示器附近的中最大限度地关注，但不能同时使用，视觉刺激的呈现。有视力障碍的儿童尤其更敏感地响应声音提示。这样的线索可以增强测试注意力在这个人口。 </li></ol></li><li>应用在眼跟踪器软件的测试序列（多个）。首先，选择刺激的类型被添加到眼动仪软件的时间表:图像或影片。下一步，选择从它所在的文件夹中所需的刺激，然后单击"添加"。重复上述步骤，直到所有的刺激都有被添加。 </li></ol> 3.运行眼动跟踪实验<ol><li>具有灵活的LCD手臂了坚实的桌子或墙连接眼动仪显示器。选择可以在3个维度（ 即 3个平移，3个旋转）移动手臂。 </li><li>位置的儿童在从显示器一个短距离（通常〜60厘米），以确保双眼有效瞳孔的跟踪。 </li><li>调整显示器的位置是完全垂直于孩子的眼睛。随着液晶显示器的手臂，这是可能的，即使当孩子躺在或坐在婴儿车或轮椅。 注意:这种设置可以很年轻，智力残疾儿童评估，因为它不需要特定的身体姿势，语言交流和积极参与。某些动眼神经损伤（ 例如眼球震颤），以补偿偏差眼睛位置（ 例如 ，斜颈）的特征在于头部的优先位置。的能力调整眼动仪显示器个人头地位，使学生准确跟踪这群孩子英寸</li><li>检查瞳孔接收质量。这通常是通过代表孩子的眼睛（ 例如 ，白点）的两个标记的存在表示。如果这两个指标都清晰可见，不定时消失，质量就足够了。在一个单独的显示，检查到显示器（优选〜60厘米）的眼睛的距离。 注:大多数眼动仪分别记录每个眼睛的注视位置和补偿自由头部运动。多空信号接收是普遍在谁戴眼镜或隐形眼镜，在孩子与一个或两个功能的眼睛，或与儿童斜视儿童不受损害。 </li><li>启动眼睛跟踪软件校准步骤校准与监视器上预定位置的视线的位置，开始测量之前。在大多数的眼动仪软件包此校准procedURE包括在显示屏的预定义的领域，这不得不被固定移动的小圆点的呈现。对于儿童，卡通或迫近的点的一个版本可用于改善视觉注意。 注意:虽然儿童的校准程序已显著改善，他们仍然是具有挑战性的幼儿，并具有一定的心眼或行为障碍的儿童进行。 </li><li>检查预先设定的校准质量。当校准质量差，（ 例如 ，由于过度头部运动，缺乏适当的注视，目光异常位置或离经叛道头位置），无记录可。为了规避这一点，在记录已经完成之后，在进一步的数据分析（见讨论部分）施加校准后过程。 </li><li>在开始测试录制前，激活&#39;现场观众":一个单独的窗口，显示由超级测试激励孩子的眼球运动反应强加录像凝视信号。 </li><li>激活就是冲着孩子一个网络摄像头，观察和测试过程中记录孩子的一般行为。这种记录提供孩子的视觉注意力，行为，疲劳和环境条件的概述。 </li><li>在此之前开始测试，告诉孩子，他或她将"看电视"。没有具体说明，在测试过程中是必要的。 </li><li>在测试执行时，注意观察孩子的身体行为和眼球运动的反应。这可以通过在实时行为上观察，或通过观察与Web凸轮所作的记录。 <ol><li>当测试执行过程中瞳孔信号消失，重新无论是孩子还是继续正常瞳孔检测显示器。 </li><li>当一个孩子不注意显示器，口头鼓励孩子观看显示器。不要直接引导孩子的注意目标区;仅直接孩子的目光眼动仪显示器的大致位置。 </li></ol></li><li>测试执行后，重播的目光记录离线观察视线反应所提出的刺激。这是在表征孩子的视觉取向行为的第一步。 注意:参数的众多由在整个测试时间眼动仪软件连续记录。需要被输出到执行用于本范例数据分析基本参数是:时间印记，观看两个眼睛和显示器之间的距离，左眼和右眼的在显示器上的位置（x和y坐标） ，有效性的视线数据，和定时并呈现刺激（ 即事件）的位置。 </li><li>每个主体，出口和存储眼球运动特性所记录的基于时间的数据（数据目光如观看距离和视线的位置），并分别提出了视觉ST的基于时间的列表imuli（事件数据，如刺激位置）。请务必将两个数据文件导出为文本文件，并将其转换成一个数据电子表格（ 如保存为Excel文件）。 注意:两个文本文件（事件数据和视线数据）使用的是它们的相应的时间标记相结合，并且被转换成一组具有自编写的软件程序（见下一节）定量参数值。相比于标准的眼动仪分析软件，这些参数提供更精确定量眼球运动分析，瞄准详细视觉和认知过程。 </li></ol> 4.眼动的定量分析注:本协议是特定于一个自编写的软件程序。为了复制它，应该写这样的软件程序， 例如 ，在MATLAB或Python，量化孩子的视力定向行为。在软件程序中，以下步骤是为每个S进行timulus类型。本示例的重点是卡通;相同的协议也适用于其它的刺激的类型。 <ol><li>后校准凝视数据<ol><li>打开MATLAB。选择刺激分析凝视数据，在"1"输入旁边的选择的刺激。 </li><li>按运行。在出现的弹出菜单中选择"后校准数据"的选项。每次出现的主题与目光的数据文件列表。选择一个主题，按"打开"的目光数据。 </li><li>从下一个弹出菜单中，选择哪只眼睛（S）来分析:左，右，或两者。该程序现在生成所有记录注视位置和目标位置的散点图，在总的刺激呈现的时间。 </li><li>检查视线位置是否正确地与对应的目标位置重叠。如果校准正确，按"是"。否则，按"否"。这将开始执行后的校准的选项。 </li><li>翻译中心O˚F目光指向显示屏的中央，通过凝视点的中心单击一次。此中心点位于正好在vertical-轴和水平轴的中间。 </li><li>通过点击凝视点四个目标区域的中心一次（ 即 4个象限）规模的注视位置到相应的目标位置。 </li><li>再次检查视线位置是否正确地与对应的目标位置重叠。如果是这种情况，表明在下一弹出菜单校准已被正确地执行，通过按下校准注视数据保存"是"，在此之后。否则，按"否"，之后校准后再次从步骤4.1.5开始。 注:校准后后，多注视的反应是每个刺激类型，每科提供。这些可以被用于计算可视处理的量化参数。在此之前这些参数进行计算，验证目光反应是对目标区域进行（ 即 ，在特定的刺激已经由子看到）。 </li></ol></li><li>确定是否刺激已经看到<ol><li>每各受试者的刺激呈现，在总显示时间被记录在相应的注视数据中的曲线图（ 图2）被可视化。验证这种刺激是否已经看到的那样，通过检查表1中指出，并且在图2中可视化的标准，如果眼球运动响应附着到标准， 即 ，刺激可分类为看到的，点击"接受"在弹出菜单中。如果眼球运动的反应是不符合标准的，点击"拒绝"。 </li><li>同时，在第二图形绘制属于呈现刺激所有固定点和相应的目标区域（即象限）。目视检查固定点是否位于CORRE克拉象限。 </li><li>与随后的刺激呈现继续，执行步骤4.2.1和4.2.2的所有可用的眼球运动反应。手动检查眼球运动的响应后，软件程序计算3结果参数:RTF，FD和面积（ 图3）。 </li></ol></li></ol><img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig2.jpg" /> 图2.眼球运动响应于从目标区域的中心的距离的刺激，一个眼球运动跟踪（水平和垂直方向相结合） 的目标区域 （以度，y轴）上刺激呈现时间（毫秒， x轴）。虚线表示的目标区域（6°半径）的边界。字母表示标准建立的刺激是否已经看出:（A）在第一个500毫秒的凝视信号; （B）的凝视是不是在目标区域befo重120毫秒; （C）在目标区域内凝视≥200毫秒。注意，在该图中，所描绘的显示时间是最高2000毫秒形象化第一，自反响应。在测试过程中，所有的刺激呈现的总时间为4000毫秒。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td>绕圈（ 图2） </td><td>验证目光信号: </td><td>理由: </td></tr><tr><td>一个</td><td>已记录刺激后发病≥500毫秒</td><td>捕捉反射定向反应</td></tr><tr><td>乙</td><td>没有进入目标区域&lt;刺激发病后120毫秒，是不是已经在目标内的刺激呈现的开始</td><td>排除基于机会纠正性能</td></tr><tr><td> C </td><td>是在目标区域为≥200毫秒</td><td>确保在目标定影</td></tr><tr><td> ð </td><td>输入的目标区域的1500毫秒的时间范围内，且低于4扫视作了</td><td>排除视觉搜索行为</td></tr></tbody></table> 表1:标准建立的刺激是否已经看到标准A，B和C的可视化在图2中。 <img alt="图3" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig3.jpg" /> 图3.定量参数的RTF的可视化，在从目标区域的中心（以度，y轴）上刺激呈现时间距离FD和面积，其中一个眼球运动跟踪（在毫秒，x轴）。垂直红线代表在该凝视进入焦油时间获得区， 即，反应时间为固定（RTF）。水平红线表示总时 ​​间注视于目标区域迷恋; 也就是，固定持续时间（FD）。垂直的红色箭头表示固定迹的宽度，以度视角， 也就是说 ，凝视固定面积（GFA）的。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interest.

所提出的测量设置定量眼动分析相结合提供了与动眼神经和视觉障碍的各种儿童群体视觉处理功能有显着特征。这种模式的主要特点是性能是基于眼球运动反应到在反身的方式引发的视觉刺激。没有具体的口头指示中给出并且没有必要为儿童口头响应。参数RTF，GFA和FD显示，典型的发展中和视障儿童群体之间的差异显著尽管存在各组参数值（ 图4 - 6）的有限传播。因此，根据所评估的参数，一些正常发育儿童可以显示不正常的表现，而有些孩子有视力障碍的表现"正常"的表现。最终，响应于多个可视的多个结果的措施模式应当在个人层面来考虑。所有成果的措施汇总提供的视觉信息处理能力，它可以在视觉形象从6月龄转换儿童独特的特征。 一些研究儿童的脆弱人群中所示的远程眼动追踪的价值，来推断注意力或心理能力9,12,18。而大多数研究依靠行为观察和使用说明，目前的模式的显着特点就是非语言的，定量的方法。因此在协议中的关键步骤包括基于优先注视，移动式量测的建立的刺激，以及自定义的校准和分析软件。的基于观察的结果所提出的延长精心分析的方法提供了视觉处理功能规范，详细的结果。这与工作线路上的评估婴幼儿视力与眼球跟踪14，并在凝视防治工作中的各种疾病7。该方法是灵活的，使移动评估执行幼儿或多个残疾儿童临床评估时，这是必不可少的。因此，它适合于测量在几乎是能够观看显示器的所有子动眼神经和可视处理能力。 这种方法相对于现有的Visual诊断方法（ 即有效期）的重要性已经被研究作为走向临床实施的第一步。本范式与儿童目前使用的视觉功能评估（VFA）相结合。是基于眼球运动记录的动眼神经和视觉功能的观察结果与这些功能中的标准行为观察媲美。此外，眼动追踪参数， 例如 ，注视时间和扫视方向，提供广告在VFA期间检定动眼神经与儿童的视觉表现ditional值（Kooiker MJG 等人 ，2015年，提交）。该方法的主要收益在于评估更多的视觉功能比视觉功能评估在年轻的时候正在做的，并评估他们在一个定量的方式26的可能性。相对于现有方法的局限性在于，没有修改，所以无法全面评估视力或视野与本试验电池14。 虽然我们自己的限制，从动画片的刺激结果的呈现，在未来的应用不同的视觉模式可以使用其他的刺激（ 如不同的形式，运动，色彩和对比度信息）22,20,25进行测试。这样一来，除了初级视觉通路特定可视处理区域被定位的，例如在时间或顶叶皮质视觉关联的区域。该方法的一个限制是本视觉刺激仅仅触发视觉输入的检测，并调用可视处理的初始阶段。这些刺激不针对高阶函数，成为刺激检测之后相关和通常与视觉感知测试测量。虽然他们没有使用通信的执行是具有挑战性的，一个基于眼球追踪模式是用于检测的感知相关信息的前途格式， 如可视化搜索，-Memory或选择性关注。 总之，详细的眼球运动反应，各类视觉刺激提供​​视觉信息加工功能的综合表征，在开发早期。因此，对于每个孩子的完整和功能损伤方面的个人视觉形象可以被创建。这样的配置文件可以提供关于在动眼神经和视觉的长处和弱点的详细信息功能。它可以作为一个起点，在日常生活中的支持，并为教师和照顾者的教育。这已成为可用这种方法的定量信息可以是以下可视随着时间的发展，以及监测视觉干预和康复方案有利。

在儿童脑损伤有关的视觉问题的患病率增加了。因为视力问题可能对孩子的发展影响很大，及早发现婴幼儿和儿童的风险是非常重要的。目前，视功能测试，以评估视觉感官功能，如视力，对比敏感度（如视标测试）的儿童都适用，从1 - 2年的1岁。在年幼的儿童这些试验是基于孩子的收视行为的视觉信息的结构的观察。这样的行为， 即的解释，通过观察一个孩子的眼球运动，可以通过动眼神经或儿童的注意力机能障碍，或者甚至通过查看观察者的行为受到阻碍。 Cerebrally介导的视觉功能，如视觉空间记忆和识别物体进行评估与视觉感知测试（ 例如，DTVP 2）。这些测试需要口头插件tructions和通信，并可以从4-5岁使用。鉴于视觉系统的出生后发育的，并利用高级别在生命早期可塑性的，理想的是尽早确立在视觉信息处理障碍的存在和程度。这样一来，用（脑）视觉障碍的孩子可能从最大早期干预，视觉上的刺激，或支持性策略中受益。因此，有必要为视觉信息的处理的评估方法，该方法可以在不儿童口头通信中使用，并且是基于定量结果。 眼球运动是一个很好的模型来研究视觉引导定向行为，以刺激3,4，以及相关的感知和认知功能5。眼球运动表明视​​觉注意场景中的焦点，并已知会导致无论是从下往上（反身，突显驱动）还是从顶向下（我ntentional，认知）处理6。眼睛运动被用于引导凹， 即 ，视觉的清晰度，向新的对象。感兴趣的对象的视觉内容经由从经由外侧膝状体到初级视觉皮层（V1）视网膜运行途径加工，并且分发自身在脑的处理区域（ 例如，涉及在注意力，空间定向，识别，存储器，和情绪）。眼球运动都是对的先决条件，而续集视觉信息处理。 在用红外眼跟踪眼球运动的测定发展给予的可能性，以获得动眼神经和视觉功能的定量参数。自动眼跟踪器在涉及健康和临床人群的医疗和心理研究当今无所不在。他们的目的是不仅要研究眼球运动功能，注意力分配7，而且回答问题ABOUT行为和心理机制8,9。随着访问和商业眼球跟踪系统的崛起，他们越来越多地用于测试婴儿和儿童的10-12弱势群体，没有约束的条件下，复杂的指令，或积极合作12,13。由于对眼和脑水平动眼神经和视觉系统的紧密耦合，眼基于跟踪的方法是预先突出适合于评估视觉能力。到目前为止，除了视力14的测量，在评估儿童视觉功能的使用的技术的已接收相对很少关注。 本集团已结合了优先注视范式13眼动测量。优先注视超过同质那些15注视图案表面的偏好。这一原则是由四种情况之一的象限，其中使用差异比较视觉刺激与目标应用领域呃从在一个特定的视觉特征方面的背景下， 例如相干形式，相干运动，对比度和颜色。这些视觉特征是已知的由单独的外周和中枢视觉通路进行处理。例如约形式信息由腹侧途径进行处理，从V1到颞叶皮层。关于运动的信息由背途径处理，从V1到后顶叶16。因此，具体的刺激被用于在视觉系统的不同的区域来触发视觉信息的处理。如果孩子是能够看到被呈现的特定的可视信息，该信息将吸引视觉注意的眼球运动的形式。对视觉刺激这些反射性眼球运动反应记录与远程红外眼动仪。这样一来，眼球运动的措施提供的视觉信息处理13各方面的质量的一个自由通信的评估。 眼球运动提供儿童的收视行为11不仅观测数据，但也可用于更客观结果的措施。在精心设计的测试模式相结合，眼球运动可以提供视觉信息处理的精确和客观的信息。这个信息是通过计算基于对眼球运动的反应时间和空间特性的量化参数而获得。这些参数的例子是反应时间13，固定时间17，扫视指标7或累积注意分配18。这些参数的可用性是一个新的儿童视觉评估领域在青少年发育阶段。 本文的目的是提出测量从6个月的年龄中的儿童的视觉信息处理的眼基于跟踪方法。测量设置和程序（ 即非语言范式，校准后，和mobilitY）特别适用于处于危险中的儿童在使用此方法。一个重要方面是定量的视觉反应参数， 即反应时间，注视时间和固定的精度进行分析。这些参数用于提供视觉引导反应参照区的正常发育儿童，在视障儿童的高危人群表征视觉信息处理。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1069">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tobii T60 XL</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/hardware/tobii-t60xl-eye-tracker/</td>
			<td style="width:251px;">remote infrared eye tracker&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tobii Studio</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/software/tobii-studio-analysis-software/</td>
			<td>eye tracker software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">MATLAB</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">MathWorks Inc</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://nl.mathworks.com/products/matlab/</td>
			<td>data analysis software</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a method to quantify visual information processing in children using eye tracking

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational methods, it is difficult to make a quantitative assessment of a child's visual problems. This limits accurate diagnostics in children under the age of 4 years and in children with intellectual disabilities. Here we describe a quantitative method that overcomes these problems. The method uses a remote eye tracker and a four choice preferential looking paradigm to measure eye movement responses to different visual stimuli. The child sits without head support in front of a monitor with integrated infrared cameras. In one of four monitor quadrants a visual stimulus is presented. Each stimulus has a specific visual modality with respect to the background, e.g., form, motion, contrast or color. From the reflexive eye movement responses to these specific visual modalities, output parameters such as reaction times, fixation accuracy and fixation duration are calculated to quantify a child's viewing behavior. With this approach, the quality of visual information processing can be assessed without the use of communication. By comparing results with reference values obtained in typically developing children from 0-12 years, the method provides a characterization of visual information processing in visually impaired children. The quantitative information provided by this method can be advantageous for the field of clinical visual assessment and rehabilitation in multiple ways. The parameter values provide a good basis to: (i) characterize early visual capacities and consequently to enable early interventions; (ii) compare risk groups and follow visual development over time; and (iii), construct an individual visual profile for each child.

该方法已在儿童两个群体得到应用:337儿童的对照组无视觉障碍（平均年龄（SD）= 4.8（3.3）岁），一组119儿童有视觉障碍（平均年龄（SD） =谁是在视觉康复中心（荷兰皇家Visio中，荷兰）招募8.10（2.96）岁）。这些儿童中，有74眼视力障碍45例脑视觉障碍。所有控制儿童的结果可视化在图4 - 6，分别为反应时间，注视时间，和视线固定区域。参考范围（由黑线表示）通过拟合的对数函数，以基于年龄的控制数据构成。这些数字作为与视力障碍儿童视觉特性处理功能受损或完整功能方面的基础。 13）中的时间的量度。越低，RTF值，更快的眼球运动反应。 RTF重复性好了一组正常发育儿童的研究显示，从0-12年的13,21,22，并与各种类型的视力障碍21的孩子。 图4显示了平均RTF的动态卡通刺激超龄，为控制儿童，脑视力障碍（CVI）和眼视力障碍（OVI）的儿童。在儿童游乐;与-相对于没有视力障碍的儿童（T = -13.91，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.32平均差= 85毫秒），RTF值是孩子显著高ñ与CVI相比，OVI（平均差= 99毫秒; T = -6.90，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.25）。这些结果证实了先前在目前数据20,24,25的分组发表了RTF发现。 <img alt="图4" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4.jpg" /> 图4.儿童与-和无视觉障碍的平均RTF，以毫秒为每名儿童平均RTF值（Y轴），岁以上（X轴）。值是控制儿童（空心圆），儿童OVI（黑圈），和儿童CVI（十字）单独列出。黑线代表对照组中RTF的参考值上限。这条线之上RTF值被视为离经叛道， 即较长的反应时间。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> 图5显示了平均FD岁以上，独立控制的儿童，CVI，并与孩子们OVI。 FD是儿童显著缩短与-比儿童无视力障碍（平均差= 850毫秒; T = 11.72，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = -1.12），并与CVI不是与OVI儿儿显著短（平均差值= 325毫秒; T = 2.44，p &lt;0.05，科恩的D = -0.50）。这证实了在儿童与-先前的结果，相对于儿童没有视觉障碍（Kooiker MJG 等人 ，提交）。 图5.在儿童与-和无视觉障碍平均部FD。每名儿童在ms平均FD值（y轴），在年龄（x轴）。值是控制儿童（空心圆），儿童OVI（黑圈），和儿童CVI（十字）单独列出。黑线代表在对照组中FD的参考值下限。这条线之下FD值被视为离经叛道， 即短期固定期限。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> 参数目光注视面积（GFA）是敏感检测骚乱动眼神经的控制，特别是眼球震颤。面积表示以度固定的区域的大小，并且为测量固定精度（对计算见以往的研究13,23）。固定的小范围表示高度固定的精度。面积取决于刺激的大小和相应的目标区域（ 即 ，在本实施例中一个6º半径）。建筑面积重复性好了一组正常发育儿童的研究显示，从0-12年13，21，并与各种类型的视力障碍21的孩子。 图6显示面积平均响应卡通刺激岁以上，分 ​​别为控制孩子，孩子与动眼神经损伤眼球震颤，并有视觉障碍，但无眼球震颤的孩子。与-相比于没有孩子视力障碍的面积值是显著更大， 即较低的固定的准确性，儿童（平均差=1.34º; T = -25.09，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 2.37）。此外，眼球震颤的孩子有更低的固定精度比孩子的Wi<html> thout眼球震颤，但与其他类型的视力障碍（平均差=0.71º; T = 5.03，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.04）。这与目前数据20,24,25的亚建筑面积计算先前公布的调查结果一致。 <img alt="图6" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig6.jpg" /> 图6.平均建筑面积在有和无视觉障碍的孩子。每个孩子的平均度值面积（Y轴），岁以上（X轴）。值分别显示了控制儿童（空心圆），小儿视力障碍及眼球震颤（星号），并视障儿童无眼球震颤（黑钻）。黑线代表对照组总建筑面积的参考值上限。 GFA值高于这条线被认为是离经叛道， 即低精度固定。T ="_空白"&gt;点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

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A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

一种方法来量化视觉信息加工儿童使用眼动追踪

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

17.3K 次观看.  Erasmus MC. A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

视频: A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

心理跟踪方法来衡量儿童和成人的口味偏好

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

科研

行为学

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

眼跟踪控制，以评估患者的认知功能与肌萎缩性脊髓侧索硬化症

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

A Computational Method to Quantify Fly Circadian Activity

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. Fundamental mechanisms that underlie this temporal control are widely studied using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism. In flies, the clock is typically studied by analyzing multiday locomotor recording. Such a recording shows a complex bimodal pattern with two peaks of activity: a morning peak that happens around dawn, and an evening peak that happens around dusk. These two peaks together form a waveform that is very different from sinusoidal oscillations observed in clock genes, suggesting that mechanisms in addition to the clock have profound effects in producing the observed patterns in behavioral data. Here we provide instructions on using a recently developed computational method that mathematically describes temporal patterns in fly activity. The method fits activity data with a model waveform that consists of four exponential terms and nine independent parameters that fully describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of activity. The extracted parameters can help elucidate the kinetic mechanisms of substrates that underlie the commonly observed bimodal activity patterns in fly locomotor rhythms.

A method to quantify the main temporal features seen in fly circadian locomotor rhythms is presented. The quantification is achieved by fitting fly activity with a multi-parametric model waveform. The model parameters describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of daily activity.

量化飞行昼夜活动的一种计算方法

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. ...

A Method to Study Adaptation to Left-Right Reversed Audition

An unusual sensory space is one of the effective tools to uncover the mechanism of adaptability of humans to a novel environment. Although most of the previous studies have used special spectacles with prisms to achieve unusual spaces in the visual domain, a methodology for studying the adaptation to unusual auditory spaces has yet to be fully established. This study proposes a new protocol to set-up, validate, and use a left-right reversed stereophonic system using only wearable devices, and to study the adaptation to left-right reversed audition with the help of neuroimaging. Although individual acoustic characteristics are not yet implemented, and slight spillover of unreversed sounds is relatively uncontrollable, the constructed apparatus shows high performance in a 360&#176; sound source localization coupled with hearing characteristics with little delay. Moreover, it looks like a mobile music player and enables a participant to focus on daily life without arousing curiosity or drawing attention of other individuals. Since the effects of adaptation were successfully detected at the perceptual, behavioral, and neural levels, it is concluded that this protocol provides a promising methodology for studying adaptation to left-right reversed audition, and is an effective tool for uncovering the adaptability of humans to a novel environments in the auditory domain.

The present study proposes a protocol to investigate the adaptation to left-right reversed audition achieved only by wearable devices, using neuroimaging, which can be an effective tool for uncovering the adaptability of humans to a novel environment in the auditory domain.

一种研究左右反试镜的适应方法

An unusual sensory space is one of the effective tools to uncover the mechanism of adaptability of humans to a novel environment. Although most of the ...

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing and the perception of the visual world. The recording of eye-gaze patterns has provided good evidence for the contribution of both the visual context and linguistic/world knowledge to language comprehension. Initial research assessed object-context effects to test&#160;theories of modularity in language processing. In the introduction, we describe how subsequent investigations have taken the role of the wider visual context in language processing as a research topic in its own right, asking questions such as how our visual perception of events and of speakers contributes to&#160;comprehension informed by&#160;comprehenders&#39; experience. Among the examined aspects of the visual context are actions, events, a speaker&#39;s gaze, and emotional facial expressions, as well as spatial object configurations. Following an overview of the eye-tracking method and its different applications, we list the key steps of the methodology in the protocol, illustrating how to successfully use it to study visually-situated language comprehension. A final section presents three sets of representative results and illustrates the benefits and limitations of eye tracking for investigating the interplay between the perception of the visual world and language comprehension.

The present article reviews an eye-tracking methodology for studies on language comprehension. To obtain reliable data, key steps of the protocol must be followed. Among these are the correct set-up of the eye tracker (e.g., ensuring good quality of the eye and head images) and accurate calibration.

视觉语言理解中的眼动追踪: 发现视觉语境效果的灵活性和局限性

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing ...

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded via an eye tracker as the participant produces or comprehends a spoken language describing the concurrent visual world. This paradigm has high versatility, as it can be used in a wide range of populations, including those who cannot read and/or who cannot overtly give their behavioral responses, such as preliterate children, elderly adults, and patients. More importantly, the paradigm is extremely sensitive to fine grained manipulations of the speech signal, and it can be used to study the online processing of most topics in language comprehension at multiple levels, such as the fine grained acoustic phonetic features, the properties of words, and the linguistic structures. The protocol described in this article illustrates how a typical visual world eye tracking study is conducted, with an example showing how the online processing of some semantically complex statements can be explored with the visual world paradigm.

The visual world paradigm monitors participants' eye movements in the visual workspace as they are listening to or speaking a spoken language. This paradigm can be used to investigate the online processing of a wide range of psycholinguistic questions, including semantically complex statements, such as disjunctive statements.

利用视觉世界范式中的眼球运动探索口语的在线处理

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded ...

An Electrophysiology Protocol to Measure Reward Anticipation and Processing in Children

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation and processing. Its purpose is to create a reward task that is appropriate for young children with and without autism while controlling reward properties between two conditions: social and nonsocial. The current protocol allows for comparisons of brain activity between social and nonsocial reward conditions while keeping the reward itself identical between conditions. Using this protocol, we found evidence that neurotypical children demonstrate enhanced anticipatory brain activity during the social condition. Furthermore, we found that neurotypical children anticipate social reward more robustly than children with autism diagnoses. As the task uses snacks as a reward, it is most appropriate for young children. However, the protocol may be adapted for use with adolescent or adult populations if snacks are replaced by monetary incentives. The protocol is designed to measure electrophysiological events (event-related potentials), but it may be customized for use with eye-tracking or fMRI.

This protocol is designed to measure reward anticipation and processing in young children with and without autism. Specifically, the protocol is designed to study the neural correlates of reward during social and nonsocial conditions while controlling for reward between conditions.

儿童奖励预期与处理的电生理学协议

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation ...

Eye-tracking to Distinguish Comprehension-based and Oculomotor-based Regressive Eye Movements During Reading

Regressive eye movements are eye movements that move backwards through the text and comprise approximately 10-25% of eye movements during reading. As such, understanding the causes and mechanisms of regressions plays an important role in understanding eye movement behavior. Inhibition of return (IOR) is an oculomotor effect that results in increased latency to return attention to a previously attended target versus a target that was not previously attended. Thus, IOR may affect regressions. This paper describes how to design materials to distinguish between regressions caused by comprehension-related and oculomotor processes; the latter is subject to IOR. The method allows researchers to identify IOR and control the causes of regressions. While the method requires tightly controlled materials and large numbers of participants and materials, it allows researchers to distinguish and control the types of regressions that occur in their reading studies.

The method was designed to investigate the role of inhibition of return (IOR) in regressive eye movements during reading. The focus is on differentiating between regressions triggered as a result of comprehension difficulty versus those triggered from oculomotor error, including the role of IOR in the two types of regressions.

眼动追踪在阅读中区分基于理解的和基于眼球的退行性眼球运动

Regressive eye movements are eye movements that move backwards through the text and comprise approximately 10-25% of eye movements during reading. As ...

Using the Visual World Paradigm to Study Sentence Comprehension in Mandarin-Speaking Children with Autism

Sentence comprehension relies on the ability to rapidly integrate different types of linguistic and non-linguistic information. However, there is currently a paucity of research exploring how preschool children with autism understand sentences using different types of cues. The mechanisms underlying sentence comprehension remains largely unclear. The present study presents a protocol to examine the sentence comprehension abilities of preschool children with autism. More specifically, a visual world paradigm of eye-tracking is used to explore the moment-to-moment sentence comprehension in the children. The paradigm has multiple advantages. First, it is sensitive to the time course of sentence comprehension and thus can provide rich information about how sentence comprehension unfolds over time. Second, it requires minimal task and communication demands, so it is ideal for testing children with autism. To further minimize the computational burden of children, the present study measures eye movements that arise as automatic responses to linguistic input rather than measuring eye movements that accompany conscious responses to spoken instructions.

We present a protocol to examine the use of morphological cues during real-time sentence comprehension by children with autism.

用视觉世界范式研究自闭症普通话儿童的句子理解

Sentence comprehension relies on the ability to rapidly integrate different types of linguistic and non-linguistic information. However, there is ...

Gaze in Action: Head-mounted Eye Tracking of Children's Dynamic Visual Attention During Naturalistic Behavior

Young children's visual environments are dynamic, changing moment-by-moment as children physically and visually explore spaces and objects and interact with people around them. Head-mounted eye tracking offers a unique opportunity to capture children's dynamic egocentric views and how they allocate visual attention within those views. This protocol provides guiding principles and practical recommendations for researchers using head-mounted eye trackers in both laboratory and more naturalistic settings. Head-mounted eye tracking complements other experimental methods by enhancing opportunities for data collection in more ecologically valid contexts through increased portability and freedom of head and body movements compared to screen-based eye tracking. This protocol can also be integrated with other technologies, such as motion tracking and heart-rate monitoring, to provide a high-density multimodal dataset for examining natural behavior, learning, and development than previously possible. This paper illustrates the types of data generated from head-mounted eye tracking in a study designed to investigate visual attention in one natural context for toddlers: free-flowing toy play with a parent. Successful use of this protocol will allow researchers to collect data that can be used to answer questions not only about visual attention, but also about a broad range of other perceptual, cognitive, and social skills and their development.

Young children do not passively observe the world, but rather actively explore and engage with their environment. This protocol provides guiding principles and practical recommendations for using head-mounted eye trackers to record infants' and toddlers' dynamic visual environments and visual attention in the context of natural behavior.

行动中的目光: 在自然主义行为中对儿童动态视觉注意力的头戴式眼动

Young children's visual environments are dynamic, changing moment-by-moment as children physically and visually explore spaces and objects and interact ...