<html>我们感谢所​​有的儿童和照顾者参加了我们的眼球追踪研究Callier沟通障碍中心在达拉斯的得克萨斯大学，并在北卡罗来纳州的UNC发育障碍研究所。 萨松北路格兰特数UL1RR024982题为“从国家研究资源中心（NCRR），国立卫生研究院的一个组成部分，”北德克萨斯州中部的临床和转化科学倡议“（米尔顿·帕克博士，PI）的支持， （NIH）和NIH路线图医学研究，其内容完全是作者的责任，并不代表官方的的NCRR或NIH的观点。 NCRR上的信息可在<a href="http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/">http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/</a> 。可从重新设计的临床研究企业信息ranslational.asp“&gt; http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/clinicalresearch/overview-translational.asp。 J. Elison是由NRSA奖从NICHD的人类发展的卡罗来纳州在发展科学，UNC中心联合会（5的T32-HD007376）的支持。

1。眼球追踪设备虽然眼跟踪系统的各种市售，那些最有利于测试的ASD份额幼童以下特点： <ol><li>首先，眼睛跟踪器需要考虑的头部运动，如果不纠正，可以妥协收购凝视数据的完整性。虽然许多旧系统确保使用的下巴休息或头部安装系统（ 见图1）通过头部的稳定，通过精确跟踪，这些选项是不理想的眼动跟踪幼儿的解决方案可能会抵制限制头部运动的努力，或有放置在他们的设备。幸运的是，最现代化的商业红外视频眼动跟踪系统使用的参考系统，基于轻微的头部动作是有弹性的角膜反射。眼球跟踪系统，提供集成或远程头部跟踪解决方案的首选和现在广泛LY可用。 </li><li>不显眼的眼动跟踪系统，不干扰测试会话测试与自闭症儿童的建议。这些可以集成在一个显示器（例如，技术模式的Tobii TX300，T60XL，或T120磁带; SensoMotoric仪器模型RED500）的模型，或表上（例如，科技的Tobii TX300，X120的版本，应用科学实验室模型D6级光学高级研究模型EyeLink 1000）放在不显眼的参与者的范围内。如表顶级版本不锁定到一个特定的屏幕尺寸，他们提供的方法增加灵活性，但少自动化，并可能需要更多的手动调整。 </li><li>研究人员还应该选择的采样率，为解决他们的研究问题的适当的眼跟踪系统。大多数角膜反射眼球追踪系统有最低50赫兹的采样率（即每秒50个数据点），这是足以检查幼儿的感性PATTerns在视觉扫描静态图像和动态视频10。然而，微妙的的动眼神经行为14（例如，追求平稳，增益，及/或明示扫视）感兴趣的研究人员将要在一个系统中具有较高的采样率（即≥250赫兹）投资。要知道，在某些系统中，允许几个采样率选项，更高的采样率往往是在头部运动的自由为代价启用，使之更难以保持动能的孩子，眼睛跟踪范围内。更高的帧速率需要更快的采样和处理的视频数据，这通常是通过种植从相机获得的图像完成。这个结果在视图中使用的领域，从而减少了头部运动允许的范围减少。的研究人员使用的系统，提供不同的采样率选择，应该选择一个足够高，以解决他们的研究问题，但足够低，以便预期水平头部运动。 </li></ol> 2。测试环境和刺激。 <ol><li>稀疏房间装饰建议立即眼球追踪环境，以尽量减少孩子的注意力，显示外绘制的机会。同样，一个灯光昏暗的房间有助于减少竞争的非显示刺激的显着性。 </li><li>然而，由于患有ASD的一些年轻的孩子可能会遇到的视觉和/或听觉超敏，研究人员应避免在一个完全黑暗的房间里，加剧了显示或包括过于响亮或不和谐的声音效果，在其发言中的亮度测试，因为这些可能是厌恶一些儿童房间隔缺损和减少检验合格的结果。黑暗环境中也可能增加散瞳可以使学生更难以跟踪，虽然这可能会有所不同取决于使用眼球追踪设备。在大多数情况下，办公室照明标准建议。 </li><li>为了furtheŕ减少显示分心孩子的机会，实验者参与的孩子应该是不可见的。这可以通过分区之间的眼动跟踪站和的实验者载人主机电脑或只是定位的角度来​​看，实验者从参与者。第二个摄像头，可以帮助实验者保留在这种情况下，参与者的看法。事实上，一些商业眼跟踪集成在显示一个摄像头，使参与者的视频实时的实验者监测的主机上转达。 </li></ol> 3。程序<ol><li>年幼的孩子，特别是那些与建筑署，可能会经历一个新的测试环境的忧虑。虽然事先熟悉测试空间和/或实验者可能有助于缓和这些感受，这并不总是可能的。在最低限度，担心孩子，应附有由家长或familiAR成人整个测试会话。在某些情况下，研究人员应做好耐心，而孩子成为适应新的环境。 </li><li>测试会议开始前，实验者可以选择有儿童影片或卡通显示器上播放。这往往使孩子安心，同时确保注意对测试显示指示。然后，实验者可以考虑孩子的捕获注意优势，定位在孩子眼跟踪范围，并直接进入校准序列的过渡。 </li><li>儿童座位必须允许垂直调整，以确保所有儿童，不论身高和姿势，可以眼跟踪范围内的位置。而从显示的椅子的距离将取决于屏幕尺寸和所需的可视角度，椅子的高度需要调整后，孩子的身高使的路线IGHT是所有参与者的标准化。因为不是所有的孩子坐在椅子上，在完全相同的方式，它也经常需要稍微调整的参与者显示的距离，以获得高质量的数据，以确保每个孩子都被定位在屏幕的最佳距离。这个距离将被指定由眼球追踪制造商，是最容易使用移动椅子。 </li><li>实验者可以先尝试有孩子，如果足够小，独自坐在在被扣的汽车座椅可调升降机或在便携式高椅高度可调高度的办公椅。我们也有过成功使用Rifton椅子，尤其是那些在教室或家中设置使用它以前的儿童，因为它很容易的位置，有助于限制流动性，可能导致数据丢失。 </li><li>儿童只保持兼容，而坐在的护理人员圈后，还是需要身体的支持照顾者CAN提供，也可以由安置照顾者静坐在办公椅，可提高或降低定位在孩子的标准化距离参数。此设置的一个例子，参见图2。关于圈与坐在椅子上的统计数据应始终零售分析可能的困惑。为了确保收购，只有孩子的眼睛是由眼球追踪，研究人员可能有护理人员穿红外阻塞或不透明的太阳镜，或者干脆指示他们在测试过程中关闭他们的眼睛。护理人员也应指示仍然要不要口头或者非口头与孩子沟通在测试过程中。 </li></ol><img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/3675/3675fig1.jpg" /> 图1。一个头戴眼跟踪系统。 <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/3675/3675fig2.jpg" /> 图2。 </st荣&gt;的看护孩子可能坐在圈，如果孩子需要坐在实物援助，或者如果它是必要的维护遵守。 <ol start="6"><li>眼球跟踪系统，提供允许头部运动的范围内显示参与者的眼睛的窗口实验者，孩子的眼睛应定位在窗口的中间，提高的机会，说的眼跟踪器将保留图像眼睛，即使在测试过程中的孩子无精打采，拉直或晃动。 </li><li>正确定位后，实验者开始校准过程。作为与自闭症幼童可能无法或不愿意按照口头指示，看屏幕上的特定位置（这是许多校准序列的典型），使用动态刺激的声音伴随着，可更有效地捕获注意，从而导致更精确的注视数据。通常情况下，5点序列是短暂的，足够的保留孩子的注意力，同时也提供了一个精确的校准。与婴儿的眼睛跟踪研究往往只是聘请2点校准，而9点校准是典型的青少年和成年人的调查。 </li><li>实验者可以最大限度地提高设计简洁而有说服力的任务，具有最小的任务要求（例如，被动观看任务）在测试过程中显示孩子的视觉注意力。此外，伴音效果（也许是类似的校准过程中使用的），包括一个跨刺激的动画，可以帮助重定向注意儿童的注意力已经失效的显示。此外，在预定的位置定位刺激间动画可以确保所有视觉扫描模式开始在所有参与者的同一地点。 </li><li>如果研究工作是漫长的，实验者可以使用这个跨刺激动画作为“锚”，以确定是否发生校准漂移。典型地Y，如果漂移超过3度的视角，重新校准应进行管理。此外，如果包含多个任务或审判，重新校准之间，以消除漂移在测试过程中的每一个建议。 </li></ol> 4。分析<ol><li>最抢眼的跟踪系统产生的原始数据文件，包括在最低，时间戳，X和Y坐标点方面（有时双眼），从显示屏或刺激的距离，随着指数的特点一个刺激呈现的事件或变化。一些软件程序也产生瞳孔直径和固定指标的信息。 </li><li>如何选择凝结了大量的原始数据，确定所研究的问题。最常见的目标是到固定的密度和/或动眼神经动力学特征指标。然而，一旦这些结构的特点，注意力和记忆力，如上级结构可以根据规范检查IFIC设计条件。 </li><li>固定密度：尽管存在许多不同的算法，表征固定密度15，所有分析两个主要部分：时间和空间的信息。例如，可以定义固定点直径为1°的视角至少100毫秒内其余方面，虽然这些参数往往是研究问题的锚。常见的因变量包括的录制品的数量，平均固定时间，固定的时间总量，和个人的录制品（即扫描路径）16的空间安排和/或序列。 </li><li>在预定义的“利益区”（AOI），经常进行固定分析。研究人员可能会感兴趣的儿童和无房间隔缺损是否在其固定的时间不同，具体指数轻微（如脸的眼睛），第一目光集中指数轻微的延迟，或在他们的目光模式之间的指数轻微转移。此外，上市指标在4.3中也可以应用于AOI的分析。 </li><li>与房间隔缺损，尤其是那些在维持注意力障碍的儿童，往往表现出比对照组更缺少的目光数据。这可能会出现由于较少的视觉注意屏幕上的刺激或过度闪烁（有时过于明亮的显示屏或太暗测试的环境中产生的）。为了控制丢失数据组之间的差异，研究人员可能要作为凝视的时间，而不是屏幕上丢失的数据，可以通过混淆的绝对值的比例进行分析。此外，为了防止不足抽样造成的不可靠的数据，研究人员应该要求所有与会者谁是最后的样本包括通过切断“最短时间”。这切断的特异性会因研究的不同而有所差异，但在多记录的数据丢失，应被视为犯罪嫌疑人的一般参与者。 </li><li>相比之下固定分析，基于速度的算法结合的CH在随后的录音之间的欧几里德距离昂热和重点主要在扫视。扫视速度（距离/时间）超过某一阈值时。如果并发录音不超过这个速度阈值指定的时间内，固定时表示。 </li><li>动眼神经动力学：动眼神经动态特性要求高采样眼球跟踪系统，是足够的敏感，眼位和眼球运动的微妙变化。虽然许多因变量，可以研究内动眼神经包括扫视，眼漂移，和追求，所有指数休息时的眼球运动速度的动态范围。描述这个速度是基于两个属性（即，距离和时间），从而使为动眼神经动力学的其他属性，包括分配或扫视速度，或扫视幅度的分布模式，分配或图案花纹的审查扫视durat离子，以及潜伏期（即增益）扫视扫视终止的准确性。常见的范例包括视觉引导扫视任务，antisaccade任务，记忆引导扫视任务，并预测扫视任务。7，17现存文献中扫视可能感兴趣的研究人员受益18-20动力学的研究庞大的身躯。 </li></ol> 5。代表结果<img alt="图3" src="/files/ftp_upload/3675/3675fig3.jpg" /> 图3图3表示一个固定的地图生成的研究，由本集团。这里显示的是个人的复制品，由紫色界描绘，与建筑署一个孩子在观看静态图像。从这个及类似任务的录制品进行了分析跨参与者，以确定如果没有ASD儿童不同的各种指数轻微的视觉注意力。 <img alt="图4"SRC =“/ files/ftp_upload/3675/3675fig4.jpg”/&gt; 图4图4表示最终产品的例子，其中包括许多上述步骤，包括：1）施加一个固定滤波器原料凝视数据，2）分配的录制品的特定指数轻微，3）冷凝和比较模式横跨一个典型的发展（TD）的儿童和一组自闭症儿童组的录制品。更确切地说，这个数字表明，在一个可视化的探索模式，自闭症儿童的探索（即目光集中）较少的社会形象的TD儿童“自闭症权益”（海）对象同时显示。然而，当“自闭症利息低”（黎）对象与社会刺激，探索的社会形象并不显着差异群体之间，社会的关注，房间隔缺损是根据相对突出的竞争刺激调制21。

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Psychiatry. 66, 393-397 (2009).</li><li>Shic, F., Chawarska, K., Scassellati, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+incomplete+fixation+measure.">The incomplete fixation measure.</a> , 111-114 (2008).</li><li>Jacob, R. J. K., Karn, K. S., Hyona, J., Radach, R., Deubel, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eye+tracking+in+human-computer+interaction+in+usability+research:+ready+to+deliver+the+promises+(section+commentary).">Eye tracking in human-computer interaction in usability research: ready to deliver the promises (section commentary).</a> The Mind's Eye: Cognitive and Applied Aspects of Eye Movement Research. , 573-605 (2003).</li><li>Sweeney, J. A., Takarae, Y., Macmillan, C., Luna, B., Minshew, N. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eye+movements+in+neurodevelopmental+disorders.">Eye movements in neurodevelopmental disorders.</a> Curr. Opin. Neurol. 17, 37-42 (2004).</li><li>Duchowski, A. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Eye tracking methodology: theory and practice. , (2003).</li><li>Goldberg, J. H., Kotval, X. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer+interface+evaluation+using+eye+movements:+methods+and+constructs.">Computer interface evaluation using eye movements: methods and constructs.</a> Int. J. Indus. Ergonomics. 24, 631-645 (1999).</li><li>Salvucci, D. D., Goldber, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identifying+fixations+and+saccades+in+eye-tracking+protocols.">Identifying fixations and saccades in eye-tracking protocols.</a> , 71-78 (2000).</li><li>Sasson, N. J., Turner-Brown, L. M., Holtzclaw, T. N., Lam, K. S. L., Bodfish, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Children+with+autism+demonstrate+circumscribed+attention+during+passive+viewing+of+complex+social+and+nonsocial+picture+arrays.">Children with autism demonstrate circumscribed attention during passive viewing of complex social and nonsocial picture arrays.</a> Autism. Research. 1, 31-42 (2008).</li><li>Gredebäck, G., Johnson, S., von Hofsten, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eye+tracking+in+infancy+research+Developmental+Neuropsychology.">Eye tracking in infancy research Developmental Neuropsychology.</a> 35, 1-19 (2009).</li></ol>

作者没有披露，并没有利益冲突。

眼球追踪研究精神疾病的感知特性的客观和访问工具的出现，促进了到异常的视觉注意力和动眼神经模式有助于房间隔缺损的临床特点的研究。一个特别广阔的应用前景，这项工作一直与建筑署研究年幼子女，为了捕捉这种疾病的早期出现的发育机制。尽管这个年龄组的调查，照亮了房间隔缺损的早期过程和特点，与传统的行为范式这样做的关键往往具有挑战性鉴于在这一人群中存在的社会和交际障碍。眼球追踪提供了一个直接的视觉偏好和量化措施可以减轻这些任务要求和凝视的行为。最终，这种做法可能有助于揭示期间在房间隔缺损的发展关键时期的重要信息，这个过程THA反过来T可以告知早期识别和干预力度。 尽管有这些好处，眼球追踪的幼童，患有ASD的一些方法上的挑战是复杂的。目前协议的细节准则实施这个人口眼球追踪。虽然这里限于常见的市售角膜反射眼球跟踪系统，尤其是那些不限制参与者的运动，头部运动可以纠正的建议概述，他们感兴趣的研究人员提供的一般指令。优化设计往往是研究具体的，但一般建议包括：选择设备并创建一个测试环境，有利于研究人口，实施程序，减少障碍和潜在的分心，并采取适当的分析策略。 采用这种做法可能会加快眼球追踪研究旨在研究自闭症的早期症状表现，但它们也可能涉及到感兴趣的研究组眼跟踪幼童更广泛，包括婴幼儿22，以及与其他发育障碍的儿童比自闭症。此外，研究人员可能需要根据这些建议为基础，通过合并其他生理上的措施，如脑电，皮电电导和心率监测，为客户提供更全面的形象的心理生物反应眼球追踪。日益普及的移动眼球追踪系统还增强了凝视行为在房间隔缺损的研究扩展到更多的生态有效的情况下，包括活的社会互动的可能性。这些创新的设计，预计在未来几年走红。

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 材料名称 </td><td> 类型 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 目录编号 </td><td> 评论 </td></tr><tr><td>眼球跟踪器</td><td>一个独立的角膜反射系统。眼跟踪器被集成到24“TFT宽屏显示器在60Hz记录。 </td><td>的Tobii </td><td>的Tobii 60XL </td><td>如图2所示。这是几个系统允许头部运动（在这种情况下，立方米内40x20x27cm从距离为60cm的空间，同时保留〜0.5°视角的平均精度）。 </td></tr><tr><td>眼球跟踪器控制软件</td><td></td><td>的Tobii </td><td>的Tobii工作室诉2.1.14 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>固定分析计划</td><td></td><td>的Tobii </td><td>的Tobii工作室诉2.1.14 </td><td>固定在图3 ATION分析使用该程序生成的。在外部软件生成的图4中的输出。 </td></tr></tbody></table>

eye tracking young children with autism

访问商业眼球追踪系统的兴起，助长了他们在心理和精神病学的研究中使用的快速增长。由眼球追踪提供了直接，详细和客观的注视行为的措施，已成为一个有价值的工具检查异常感性的策略，在临床人群，并已用于识别障碍的具体特点：1，促进早期识别2，并告知处理3 。自闭症谱系障碍（ASD）的调查，特别是得益于纳入其研究范式4-7眼跟踪。眼球追踪已经在很大程度上被用来在这些研究中，揭示机制受损执行任务8和脑功能异常9，特别是在处理社会信息1,10-11。虽然年龄较大的儿童和成年人患有ASD包括在这一领域的研究优势，眼球追踪可能是学习障碍的年轻儿童，尤其是有用的，因为它提供了一个非侵入性的工具，量化评估和早期出现的发育异常2,12-13。实施与自闭症的幼童眼跟踪，但是，与一些独特的挑战，包括与遵从行为的问题，从具体的任务要求和疾病相关的心理考虑。在这个协议中，我们详细而眼跟踪与自闭症幼童优化研究设计，数据采集和心理分析的方法考虑。所提供的建议也被设计为更广泛地适用于与其他发育障碍的儿童眼跟踪。根据我们自己的工作中得出的经验教训，这些领域的最佳做法提供指引，我们希望能帮助其他研究者做出合理的研究设计和分析，选择，同时避免常见的陷阱，可危及数据收购，而眼球追踪的幼童有自闭症或其他发育困难。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism at JoVE.com

Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism

长期以来被用于眼动追踪研究通常，发展个人的目光模式，但最近的技术进步作出了它的使用与临床的人口，包括自闭症，比较可行的。眼跟踪与自闭症幼儿虽然可以提供洞察到的早期症状表现，它涉及到方法上的挑战。提供最佳做法的建议。

自闭症幼儿的眼动追踪

The rise of accessible commercial eye-tracking systems has fueled a rapid increase in their use in psychological and psychiatric research. By providing a ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

45.0K 次观看.  University of Texas at Dallas. 长期以来被用于眼动追踪研究通常，发展个人的目光模式，但最近的技术进步作出了它的使用与临床的人口，包括自闭症，比较可行的。眼跟踪与自闭症幼儿虽然可以提供洞察到的早期症状表现，它涉及到方法上的挑战。提供最佳做法的建议。

视频: Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism

Magnetic Resonance Derived Myocardial Strain Assessment Using Feature Tracking

Purpose: An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that strain is a more sensitive and earlier marker for contractile dysfunction than the frequently used parameter EF. Current technologies for CMR are time consuming and difficult to implement in clinical practice. Feature tracking is a technology that can lead to more automization and robustness of quantitative analysis of medical images with less time consumption than comparable methods.
Methods: An automatic or manual input in a single phase serves as an initialization from which the system starts to track the displacement of individual patterns representing anatomical structures over time. The specialty of this method is that the images do not need to be manipulated in any way beforehand like e.g. tagging of CMR images.
Results: The method is very well suited for tracking muscular tissue and with this allowing quantitative elaboration of myocardium and also blood flow.
Conclusions: This new method offers a robust and time saving procedure to quantify myocardial tissue and blood with displacement, velocity and deformation parameters on regular sequences of CMR imaging. It therefore can be implemented in clinical practice.

An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that strain is a more sensitive and earlier marker for contractile dysfunction than the frequently used parameter EF.

磁共振衍生的心肌劳损评估使用特征跟踪

Purpose: An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that ...

科研

医学

Probing the Brain in Autism Using fMRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging

Newly emerging theories suggest that the brain does not function as a cohesive unit in autism, and this discordance is reflected in the behavioral symptoms displayed by individuals with autism. While structural neuroimaging findings have provided some insights into brain abnormalities in autism, the consistency of such findings is questionable. Functional neuroimaging, on the other hand, has been more fruitful in this regard because autism is a disorder of dynamic processing and allows examination of communication between cortical networks, which appears to be where the underlying problem occurs in autism. Functional connectivity is defined as the temporal correlation of spatially separate neurological events1. Findings from a number of recent fMRI studies have supported the idea that there is weaker coordination between different parts of the brain that should be working together to accomplish complex social or language problems2,3,4,5,6. One of the mysteries of autism is the coexistence of deficits in several domains along with relatively intact, sometimes enhanced, abilities. Such complex manifestation of autism calls for a global and comprehensive examination of the disorder at the neural level. A compelling recent account of the brain functioning in autism, the cortical underconnectivity theory,2,7 provides an integrating framework for the neurobiological bases of autism. The cortical underconnectivity theory of autism suggests that any language, social, or psychological function that is dependent on the integration of multiple brain regions is susceptible to disruption as the processing demand increases. In autism, the underfunctioning of integrative circuitry in the brain may cause widespread underconnectivity. In other words, people with autism may interpret information in a piecemeal fashion at the expense of the whole. Since cortical underconnectivity among brain regions, especially the frontal cortex and more posterior areas 3,6, has now been relatively well established, we can begin to further understand brain connectivity as a critical component of autism symptomatology.
A logical next step in this direction is to examine the anatomical connections that may mediate the functional connections mentioned above. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) is a relatively novel neuroimaging technique that helps probe the diffusion of water in the brain to infer the integrity of white matter fibers. In this technique, water diffusion in the brain is examined in several directions using diffusion gradients. While functional connectivity provides information about the synchronization of brain activation across different brain areas during a task or during rest, DTI helps in understanding the underlying axonal organization which may facilitate the cross-talk among brain areas. This paper will describe these techniques as valuable tools in understanding the brain in autism and the challenges involved in this line of research.

Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging have become increasingly useful in characterizing the cognitive and neural deficits in autism. An examination of brain connectivity in autism at a network level along with adaptations for scanning children with developmental disabilities is presented.

探讨孤独症的脑功能磁共振成像和弥散张量成像

Newly emerging theories suggest that the brain does not function as a cohesive unit in autism, and this discordance is reflected in the behavioral ...

Portable Intermodal Preferential Looking (IPL): Investigating Language Comprehension in Typically Developing Toddlers and Young Children with Autism

One of the defining characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is difficulty with language and communication.1 Children with ASD's onset of speaking is usually delayed, and many children with ASD consistently produce language less frequently and of lower lexical and grammatical complexity than their typically developing (TD) peers.6,8,12,23 However, children with ASD also exhibit a significant social deficit, and researchers and clinicians continue to debate the extent to which the deficits in social interaction account for or contribute to the deficits in language production.5,14,19,25
Standardized assessments of language in children with ASD usually do include a comprehension component; however, many such comprehension tasks assess just one aspect of language (e.g., vocabulary),5 or include a significant motor component (e.g., pointing, act-out), and/or require children to deliberately choose between a number of alternatives. These last two behaviors are known to also be challenging to children with ASD.7,12,13,16
We present a method which can assess the language comprehension of young typically developing children (9-36 months) and children with autism.2,4,9,11,22 This method, Portable Intermodal Preferential Looking (P-IPL), projects side-by-side video images from a laptop onto a portable screen. The video images are paired first with a 'baseline' (nondirecting) audio, and then presented again paired with a 'test' linguistic audio that matches only one of the video images. Children's eye movements while watching the video are filmed and later coded. Children who understand the linguistic audio will look more quickly to, and longer at, the video that matches the linguistic audio.2,4,11,18,22,26
This paradigm includes a number of components that have recently been miniaturized (projector, camcorder, digitizer) to enable portability and easy setup in children's homes. This is a crucial point for assessing young children with ASD, who are frequently uncomfortable in new (e.g., laboratory) settings. Videos can be created to assess a wide range of specific components of linguistic knowledge, such as Subject-Verb-Object word order, wh-questions, and tense/aspect suffixes on verbs; videos can also assess principles of word learning such as a noun bias, a shape bias, and syntactic bootstrapping.10,14,17,21,24 Videos include characters and speech that are visually and acoustically salient and well tolerated by children with ASD.

Portable Intermodal Preferential Looking IPL: Investigating Language Comprehension in Typically Developing Toddlers and Young Children with Autism

A reliable home-based way to assess the language comprehension of very young typically developing children, as well as those with autism, is described. The method analyzes children's eye gaze while viewing side-by-side images but hearing an audio that matches only one image. Stimuli are designed with young participants in mind.

便携式联运优惠展望（IPL）：研究语言理解在通常情况下发展幼儿和儿童自闭症

One  of the defining characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is difficulty  with language and communication.1  Children with ASD's onset of ...

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction (NeMO) in Female Small Rodents

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal model to investigate bladder remodeling in pBOO are female rodents undergoing partial obstruction at the proximal urethra. Variability in the degree of obstruction and animal mortality are major concerns with proximal obstruction. Furthermore, dissecting around the proximal urethra and bladder neck jeopardizes bladder innervation.
We developed a nerve-sparing mid-urethral obstruction (NeMO) model for pBOO avoiding the disadvantages of the traditional model. We approached the urethra just inferior to the pubic symphysis, which obviated the need for laparotomy as well as for dissection in this area; also, the striated urethral sphincter remained untouched. We performed NeMO in female Sprague-Dawley rats (12 obstructions, 6 sham animals) as well as in female C57/bl6 mice (20 obstructions, 18 sham animals). After two weeks, we evaluated bladder function, bladder mass, and body mass.
We had no mortalities among obstructed- or sham-operated female rats; as described for the traditional proximal pBOO-method, we tied the suture around the proximal urethra and a temporarily placed 0.9 mm metal rod. NeMO induced an 85% increase in bladder mass after two weeks, average residual urine volume was 0.4 mL in partially obstructed rats while only 0.03 mL in sham animals. In mice, we tested 3 sizes of cannulas that we placed along the urethra when tying the suture. We found that using a 27-gauge cannula resulted in over 50% animal mortality; placing the 25-gauge cannula did not yield the desired response in increasing bladder mass; utilizing a 26-gauge cannula yielded favorable results with minimal animal mortality (1/8) yet a significant 2-fold increase in bladder mass.

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction NeMO in Female Small Rodents

Traditional modeling of partial bladder outlet obstruction in rodents is fraught with animal mortality. A denervation injury from dissection around the proximal urethra and bladder neck is also of major concern. We developed and evaluated a safe and reliable mid-urethral obstruction model, avoiding the shortcomings of the traditional model.

在女小鼠害保留神经的中期尿道梗阻（NEMO）

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal ...

Measurements of Motor Function and Other Clinical Outcome Parameters in Ambulant Children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

While the number of new treatment options tested in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is increasing, there is still no defining of the most reliable assessments regarding therapeutic efficacy. We present clinical and radiological outcome measures used in ambulatory patients participating in our trial &#34;Treatment with L-citrulline and metformin in Duchenne muscular dystrophy&#34;. The motor function measure is a validated test in patients with neuromuscular disorders that consists of 32 items and assesses all three dimensions of motor performance including standing and transfer (D1 subscore), axial and proximal motor function (D2 subscore), and distal motor function (D3 subscore). The test shows high intra- and inter-rater variability but only when strictly following guidelines of the materials, examination steps, and calculation of scores. The 6-minute walk test, timed 10-meter walk/run test, and supine-up time are commonly used timed functional tests that also sufficiently monitor changes in muscle function; however, they strongly depend on patient collaboration. Quantitative MRI is an objective and sensitive biomarker to detect subclinical changes, though the examination costs may be a reason for its limited use. In this study, a high correlation between all clinical assessments and quantitative MRI scans was found. The combinational use of these methods provides a better understanding about disease progression; however, longitudinal studies are needed to validate their reliability.

The aim of this study is to present the most reliable clinical outcome measures and their correlations with quantitative muscle MRI in ambulant patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

治疗杜氏肌营养不良患儿运动功能及其他临床结果参数的测量

While the number of new treatment options tested in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is increasing, there is still no defining of the most ...

Electroretinogram Recording for Infants and Children under Anesthesia to Achieve Optimal Dark Adaptation and International Standards

Electroretinogram (ERG) is the only clinical objective test available to assess retinal function. Full-field ERG (ffERG) measures the panretinal rod and cone photoreceptor function as well as inner retinal function and is an important measure in the diagnosis and management of inherited retinal diseases as well as inflammatory, toxic, and nutritional retinopathies. Adhering to international standards and maintaining retinal dark adaptation are critical to acquire valid and reliable dark-adapted (scotopic) and light-adapted (photopic) ffERG responses. Performing ffERG in infants and children is challenging and often requires general anesthesia in the operating room. However, maintaining retinal dark adaptation in the operating room is becoming increasingly difficult given the numerous light sources from anesthesiology monitoring systems and other equipment. A practical and widely applicable method for ffERG testing is described in the operating room that optimizes retinal dark adaptation. The method reduces operating room time by dark-adapting the patient before general anesthesiology is instituted. The operating room is modified for dark adaptation and any remaining light source in the darkened operating room is minimized with the use of a modified portable foldable darkroom that encloses the patient&#8217;s head and the ERG examiner during ffERG scotopic recordings. The simple method adheres to ffERG international standards and provides valid reliable scotopic and photopic ffERG recordings that are critical to assess objective retinal function in this young age group where subjective assessment of visual function such as visual acuity and visual fields are not possible. Furthermore, the ffERG is the gold standard clinical test in detecting early onset inherited retinal diseases including Leber congenital amaurosis where approved gene therapy has become available. In sedated conditions, very low amplitude ffERG signals can be detected due to minimal orbicularis muscle activity interference, which is particularly relevant in patients after gene therapy to detect improved amplitude responses.

Adhering to international standards and maintaining retinal dark adaptation are critical to acquire valid full-field electroretinogram responses in the diagnosis and management of inherited retinal diseases. A practical protocol using a portable darkroom is provided to obtain full-field&#160;electroretinogram for infants and children under sedation or general anesthesia in the operating room setting.

麻醉下婴儿和儿童电雷电图记录，实现最佳黑暗适应和国际标准

Electroretinogram (ERG) is the only clinical objective test available to assess retinal function. Full-field ERG (ffERG) measures the panretinal rod and ...

Human Fetal Blood Flow Quantification with Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Motion Compensation

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an important tool for the clinical assessment of cardiovascular morphology and heart function. It is also the recognized standard-of-care for blood flow quantification based on phase contrast MRI. While such measurement of blood flow has been possible in adults for decades, methods to extend this capability to fetal blood flow have only recently been developed.
Fetal blood flow quantification in major vessels is important for monitoring fetal pathologies such as congenital heart disease (CHD) and fetal growth restriction (FGR). CHD causes alterations in the cardiac structure and vasculature that change the course of blood in the fetus. In FGR, the path of blood flow is altered through the dilation of shunts such that the oxygenated blood supply to the brain is increased. Blood flow quantification enables assessment of the severity of the fetal pathology, which in turn allows for suitable&#160;in utero&#160;patient management and planning for postnatal care.
The primary challenges of applying phase contrast MRI to the human fetus include small blood vessel size, high fetal heart rate, potential MRI data corruption due to maternal respiration, unpredictable fetal movements, and lack of conventional cardiac gating methods to synchronize data acquisition. Here, we describe recent technical developments from our lab that have enabled the quantification of fetal blood flow using phase contrast MRI, including advances in accelerated imaging, motion compensation, and cardiac gating.

Here we present a protocol for measuring fetal blood flow rapidly with MRI and retrospectively performing motion correction and cardiac gating.

通过磁共振成像和运动补偿进行人胎儿血流定量

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an important tool for the clinical assessment of cardiovascular morphology and heart function. It is also the ...

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Assess Taste Detection Thresholds in Children, Adolescents, and Adults: The Taste Detection Threshold (TDT) Test

This paper describes a two-alternative, forced-choice, staircase, tracking procedure, called the Taste Detection Threshold (TDT) test, that provides a reliable measure of sweet, salty, and umami taste detection thresholds from childhood to adulthood. Advantages of the method include procedures that are identical for children and adults, thus allowing the determination of age-related and individual differences in taste perception, if any, and tasks that can be completed in a relatively short time frame, do not rely on continuous attention or require memorization, control for subjective response biases, and minimize the impact of language development. After a 1 hour fast, participants are presented with pairs of solutions; in each pair, one solution is water, and the other solution contains varying concentrations of the tastant.
Using a whole-mouth tasting method, participants taste each solution (without swallowing and with rinsing between tastings) and then point to the solution with a taste or that tastes different from water. The concentration of the stimulus in the subsequent pair increases after a single incorrect response and decreases after two consecutive correct responses. A reversal occurs when the concentration sequence changes direction. The task is deemed completed after the occurrence of four reversals, provided there are a maximum of two dilution steps between two successive reversals, and the series of reversals do not form an ascending pattern. These additional criteria ensure greater reliability in outcomes. The TDT is then calculated as the geometric mean of the concentrations of the four reversals. This method has real-world relevance as it provides information on a dimension of taste perception that is independent of hedonics, and that can change with aging and certain disease states, making it a valuable psychophysical test.

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Assess Taste Detection Thresholds in Children, Adolescents, and Adults: The Taste Detection Threshold TDT Test

Psychophysical tools measure the functionality of the taste system for both research and health assessment purposes. This paper describes a method to measure taste detection thresholds that can determine the lowest concentration of sucrose, sodium chloride, or monosodium glutamate that can be tasted by individuals as young as 6 years.

评估儿童、青少年和成人味觉检测阈值的心理物理跟踪方法：味觉检测阈值（TDT）测试

This paper describes a two-alternative, forced-choice, staircase, tracking procedure, called the Taste Detection Threshold (TDT) test, that provides a ...

东莨菪碱诱导的大鼠泪腺功能障碍

A Rat Dry Eye Model with Lacrimal Gland Dysfunction Induced by Scopolamine

Aqueous-deficient dry eye (ADDE) is a type of dry eye disease that can result in the reduction of tear secretion quantity and quality. Prolonged abnormal tear production can lead to a disturbance in the ocular surface environment, including corneal damage and inflammation. In severe cases, ADDE can cause vision loss or even blindness. Currently, dry eye treatment is limited to eye drops or physical therapy, which can only alleviate eye discomfort symptoms and cannot fundamentally cure dry eye syndrome. To restore the function of the lacrimal gland in dry eye, we have created an animal model of lacrimal gland dysfunction in rats induced by scopolamine. Through the comprehensive evaluation of the lacrimal gland, corneas, conjunctivas, and other factors, we aim to provide a full understanding of the pathological changes of ADDE. Compared with the current dry eye mouse model, this ADDE animal model includes a functional evaluation of the lacrimal gland, providing a better platform for studying lacrimal gland dysfunction in ADDE.

作者聚焦：开发干眼动物模型的挑战和未来的研究方向

Here, we establish a rat model of lacrimal gland dysfunction to provide a basis for the study of aqueous-deficient dry eye.

东莨菪碱诱导泪腺功能障碍的大鼠干眼模型

Aqueous-deficient dry eye (ADDE) is a type of dry eye disease that can result in the reduction of tear secretion quantity and quality. Prolonged abnormal ...