作者要感谢Innovate UK为DIRECT （33417-239227）和PCAP （27508-196153）项目提供资助。作者还要感谢PVOH聚合物有限公司在这项工作期间提供材料和专业指导，以及联合利华，阿克苏诺贝尔和卡洛技术塑料公司的支持。

油墨配方<ol><li>通过将聚乙烯醇（8重量％PVOH在水中）溶解在加热至60℃的纯净水中来制备IJP溶液。 </li><li>在溶液中加入10克单丙二醇（MPG）（10重量％单丙二醇在水中）作为保湿剂。 注意:保湿剂的作用是防止打印头堵塞。 </li><li>将溶液搅拌数小时以确保均匀性，然后通过5μm过滤器过滤，以除去可能堵塞喷嘴的任何颗粒物。 </li><li>视觉评估油墨的均匀性，特别是任何沉淀物的发生。如果观察到沉淀，则将溶液搅拌/超声波处理很长一段时间（天），或者用低分子量的PVOH配制新的水溶液。 注意:将所有液体储存在室温的密封烧杯中。 </li></ol>油墨表征<ol><li>执行所有墨水字符在洁净室环境中室温下进行化学试验。 </li><li>使用粘度计测量溶液的粘度。 注意:为了确保配方的墨水与IJP硬件兼容，需要进行此测试。喷墨印刷方法需要4-20cP的低粘度溶液。使用旋转粘度计测量油墨的粘度作为剪切速率的函数。 </li><li>使用悬滴法在室温下测试油墨的表面张力。使用适当的测量工具，如张力计。使用制造商的协议。 注意:喷墨打印的典型解决方案的表面张力为30-40 mN / m。 </li><li>使用pH计测试pH值。使用制造商的协议。 注意:pH是水性油墨的基本参数，因为它提供了关于配制溶液的性能和稳定性的基本信息。中性溶液pH值为7，保证稳定的p并且打印头寿命长。 </li><li>通过固定滴落实验测量接触角来评估不同基材上的油墨的润湿性。使用张力计测量可能的基材（ 如玻璃，塑料和纸张）的表面能。使用张力计制造商提供的协议测量表面能。 注意:液滴和底物之间的相互作用对打印质量有很大的影响。为了确保油墨对基材的良好的粘附性，基材的表面能量应超过油墨的表面张力10-15mN / m。 </li></ol>喷墨打印注意:所有喷墨印刷沉积物在室温下进行。使用压电混合喷墨印刷机沉积PVOH多层。使用具有512个喷嘴（256×2行），30μm喷嘴直径和42-pL液滴尺寸的打印头在这个工作。 <ol><li>在印刷之前，用丙酮/甲醇/异丙醇和Di水彻底清洁玻璃基板。用N 2枪干燥衬底。 </li><li>将基板装载到打印纸上并牢固固定。 </li><li>通过将墨水冲洗通过打印头来准备墨盒。从储存器和喷嘴中取出任何空气或清洁溶液。 </li><li>将墨盒插入打印机。通过头部人格板将打印头连接到全球喷墨系统（GIS）打印管理器。 </li><li>将溶液装入位于药筒上方的150 mL注射器中，并用气密帽密封注射器。 </li><li>通过按吹扫按钮清洗墨水通过喷嘴。 注意:喷嘴 - 基板距离对喷射轨迹和打印图案的质量有很大的影响。因此，使用打印机的软件调整喷嘴 - 基板距离，以减少喷射扩展。 </li><li>组使用GIS打印软件和表2提取波形和打印参数。 注意:GIS软件界面允许控制绘制和释放幅度和宽度。 </li><li>使用GIS打印管理器软件加载所需的图像文件进行打印。 </li><li>启动数字处理，并将图像图案打印到基板上。 </li></ol> 4.印刷图案分析<ol><li>使用光学显微镜调查印刷图案的质量。检查打印功能中是否存在缺陷，并评估打印更多层时质量的提高。 </li><li>通过3D光学显微镜，使用非接触3D表面轮廓仪（基于白光干涉测量）评估喷墨印刷多层的表面拓扑和厚度分布。 注意:有关测量和用于制定/打印和表征的仪器的更多详细信息印刷图案在参考文献21中给出。 </li></ol>

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</ol>

作者没有什么可以披露的。

在这项工作中，我们成功地展示了喷墨印刷技术沉积聚合物多层膜的能力。研究了流变行为，实验结果表明配方油墨显示假塑性剪切稀化行为。此外，PVOH油墨是中性溶液（pH7），并且随时间显示出良好的稳定性。值得注意的是，成功证明IJP技术能够生产聚乙烯醇多层结构，但需要进一步改善印刷覆盖和整体质量。 此外，为了提高印刷图案的精度，需要更好地了解油墨和基板?...

聚乙烯醇是半结晶的，人造的，无毒的，水溶性的，不溶于大多数有机溶剂，可生物降解和生物相容的人体组织，具有优异的阻气性1 。此外，由于其许多有用的性质，PVOH被广泛应用于大量的应用中。如今，PVOH用于清洁和洗涤剂产品的制造，食品包装行业，水处理，纺织，农业和建筑（作为添加剂） 1 。然而，PVOH最近吸引了越来越多的药物用途2 （ 即药物递送）和医疗应用3,4 （ 例如伤口敷料，软性隐形眼镜，滴眼剂和用于软骨置换的软植入物）的关注。 PVOH膜通过熔体或溶液形式生产。熔融加工是相容只能用具有低水解度的PVOH或大量增塑的PVOH。因此，当使用该途径时，可以牺牲一些性质1 。另一方面，PVOH层可以通过溶液形式通过滴注5 ，旋涂6或静电纺丝7沉积。然而，这些方法在不想要的材料的浪费方面有许多限制。例如，在旋涂的情况下，已经报道8，95％的材料被浪费了。此外，这些方法在设计/特征（无图案化能力）方面是相当刚性的，并且具有高的总体处理成本。为了克服常规溶液处理的局限性，我们在这里探讨喷墨印刷技术提供了一种新型平台来生产对材料和应用都有很大影响的聚乙烯醇（PVOH）多层结构的潜力反思观点。 制造业的最新发展集中在廉价，简单，环保和节能的过程。喷墨印刷（IJP）是一种现代化的制造工艺，完全符合该框架。 IJP技术的主要优点是材料使用的效率，数字（无掩模）和添加剂图案化，大面积能力，与刚性/柔性基板的兼容性以及低成本。 IJP是使用分散在溶剂中的聚合材料的沉积方法。迄今为止，功能性聚合物-9 ，陶瓷-10 ，导电纳米材料-11，2D- 12 ，生物学和药学上的13种材料已经成功沉积。最近有报道说，IJP参与了作为电子设备一部分的组件的沉积，例如晶体管14 ，传感器15 ，太阳能电池16和存储器装置17以及电子封装18 。 墨水，墨盒和基材在印刷过程中使用同样重要的组分。首先，油墨的物理性质，如表面张力和流变特性（ 即剪切粘度）对印刷适应性行为有显着的影响。此外，pH在溶液（ 例如干燥，发泡和粘度）以及IJP打印碳粉盒的使用寿命上起着重要的作用。第二，对于墨盒（压电），驱动电压波形实际上限定了液滴形成以及液体射流的方向性和均匀性。最后，油墨/基材的相互作用是非常清楚的，因为分辨率和精度的打印对象很大程度上取决于这个接口。溶剂蒸发，从液体到固体的相变以及化学反应是在液滴和底物之间发生的主要过程。 Hutchings 19和Derby 20的评论文章都强调了IJP涉及的所有方面，从墨水属性到降解/底物机制。 在本研究中，我们探讨了IJP制造聚乙烯醇多层膜的能力。首先，研究了PVOH水性油墨的主要物理性质，如流变行为，表面张力和pH值。在这项工作中，采用压电喷墨打印机，然后识别合适的波形参数。印刷PVOH多层膜，通过光学显微镜评估质量和表面/厚度曲线。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Polyvinyl alcohol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>PVOH Polymers Ltd, UK</td><td>Poval 4-88</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mono-propylene glycol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td><td>W29004</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DV2T viscometer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Brookfield, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Attension Theta Optical Tensiometer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Biolin Scientific, Sweden</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HANNA pH meter&amp;nbsp;</td><td>HANNA Instruments, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>industrial Inkjet XYPrint100Z</td><td>Industrial Inkjet Ltd, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ContourGT-K 3D optical microscope&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Bruker Corp, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

inkjet-printed polyvinyl alcohol multilayers

喷墨印刷是聚合物加工的现代方法，在这项工作中，我们证明该技术能够生产聚乙烯醇（PVOH）多层结构。配制聚乙烯醇水溶液。研究了油墨的固有性质，如表面张力，粘度，pH值和时间稳定性。 PVOH基油墨是中性溶液（pH7.7），表面张力为39.3mN / m，粘度为7.5cP。油墨在低剪切速率下显示假塑性（非牛顿剪切变稀）行为，总体而言，表现出良好的时间稳定性。研究了油墨在不同基材上的润湿性，并且在该特定情况下，将玻璃鉴定为最合适的底物。专有的3D喷墨打印机被用于制造聚合物多层结构。通过光学显微镜评估喷墨印刷多层的形态，表面形貌和厚度均匀性。

研究了PVOH水性油墨的物理性质，如表面张力，粘度/流变行为，pH值，润湿性和时间稳定性。该工作中使用的油墨的粘度为7.5cP，表面张力为39.3mN / m。另外，配制的油墨是中性的（pH7），结果总结在表1中 。 <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td> 墨水 </td><td colspan="3"> 表面张力（mN / m） </td><t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inkjet-printed Polyvinyl Alcohol Multilayers at JoVE.com

Inkjet-printed Polyvinyl Alcohol Multilayers

使用喷墨打印机制造聚乙烯醇多层膜。配制聚乙烯醇水性油墨，研究其主要物理性能。

喷墨印刷聚乙烯醇多层

Inkjet printing is a modern method for polymer processing, and in this work, we demonstrate that this technology is capable of producing polyvinyl alcohol ...

inkjet-printed-polyvinyl-alcohol-multilayers

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

12.6K 次观看.  De Montfort University. 使用喷墨打印机制造聚乙烯醇多层膜。配制聚乙烯醇水性油墨，研究其主要物理性能。 

视频: Inkjet-printed Polyvinyl Alcohol Multilayers

Polymer Microarrays for High Throughput Discovery of Biomaterials

The discovery of novel biomaterials that are optimized for a specific biological application is readily achieved using polymer microarrays, which allows a combinatorial library of materials to be screened in a parallel, high throughput format1. Herein is described the formation and characterization of a polymer microarray using an on-chip photopolymerization technique 2. This involves mixing monomers at varied ratios to produce a library of monomer solutions, transferring the solution to a glass slide format using a robotic printing device and curing with UV irradiation. This format is readily amenable to many biological assays, including stem cell attachment and proliferation, cell sorting and low bacterial adhesion, allowing the ready identification of 'hit' materials that fulfill a specific biological criterion3-5. Furthermore, the use of high throughput surface characterization (HTSC) allows the biological performance to be correlated with physio-chemical properties, hence elucidating the biological-material interaction6. HTSC makes use of water contact angle (WCA) measurements, atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). In particular, ToF-SIMS provides a chemically rich analysis of the sample that can be used to correlate the cell response with a molecular moiety. In some cases, the biological performance can be predicted from the ToF-SIMS spectra, demonstrating the chemical dependence of a biological-material interaction, and informing the development of hit materials5,3.

A description of the formation of a polymer microarray using an on-chip photopolymerization technique. The high throughput surface characterization using atomic force microscopy, water contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and a cell attachment assay is also described.

聚合物芯片高通量发现的生物材料

The discovery of novel biomaterials that are optimized for a specific biological application is readily achieved using polymer microarrays, which allows a ...

科研

生物工程

Layer-by-layer Synthesis and Transfer of Freestanding Conjugated Microporous Polymer Nanomembranes

CMP as large surface area materials have attracted growing interest recently, due to their high variability in the incorporation of functional groups in combination with their outstanding thermal and chemical stability, and low densities. However, their insoluble nature causes problems in their processing since usually applied techniques such as spin coating are not available. Especially for membrane applications, where the processing of CMP as thin films is desirable, the processing problems have hindered their commercial application.
Here we describe the interfacial synthesis of CMP thin films on functionalized substrates via molecular layer-by-layer (l-b-l) synthesis. This process allows the preparation of films with desired thickness and composition and even desired composition gradients.
The use of sacrificial supports allows the preparation of freestanding membranes by dissolution of the support after the synthesis. To handle such ultra-thin freestanding membranes the protection with sacrificial coatings showed great promise, to avoid rupture of the nanomembranes. To transfer the nanomembranes to the desired substrate, the coated membranes are upfloated at the air-liquid interface and then transferred via dip coating.

In this paper we describe the interfacial synthesis of conjugated microporous polymers (CMP) on sacrificial substrates, and the dissolution of the substrate for the preparation of freestanding CMP nanomembranes. In addition, we will describe how the fragile nanomembranes can be transferred to other substrates.

层 - 层的合成和独立式共轭微孔聚合物纳米薄膜的转移

CMP as large surface area materials have attracted growing interest recently, due to their high variability in the incorporation of functional groups in ...

化学

Reactive Vapor Deposition of Conjugated Polymer Films on Arbitrary Substrates

We demonstrate a method of conformally coating conjugated polymers on arbitrary substrates using a custom-designed, low-pressure reaction chamber. Conductive polymers, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and poly(3,4-propylenedioxythiophene) (PProDOT), and a semiconducting polymer, poly(thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) (PTT), were deposited on unconventional highly-disordered and textured substrates with high surface areas, such as paper, towels and fabrics. This reported deposition chamber is an improvement of previous vapor reactors because our system can accommodate both volatile and nonvolatile monomers, such as 3,4-propylenedioxythiophene and thieno[3,2-b]thiophene. Utilization of both solid and liquid oxidants are also demonstrated. One limitation of this method is that it lacks sophisticated in situ thickness monitors. Polymer coatings made by the commonly used solution-based coating methods, such as spin-coating and surface grafting, are often not uniform or susceptible to mechanical degradation. This reported vapor phase deposition method overcomes those drawbacks and is a strong alternative to common solution-based coating methods. Notably, polymer films coated by the reported method are uniform and conformal on rough surfaces, even at a micrometer scale. This feature allows for future application of vapor deposited polymers in electronics devices on flexible and highly textured substrates.

This paper presents a protocol for reactive vapor deposition of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), poly(3,4-propylenedioxythiophene), and poly(thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) films on glass slides and rough substrates, such as textiles and paper.

任意基底上共轭聚合物薄膜的反应气相沉积

We demonstrate a method of conformally coating conjugated polymers on arbitrary substrates using a custom-designed, low-pressure reaction chamber. ...

Fabricating Reactive Surfaces with Brush-like and Crosslinked Films of Azlactone-Functionalized Block Co-Polymers

In this paper, fabrication methods that generate novel surfaces using the azlactone-based block co-polymer, poly (glycidyl methacrylate)-block-poly (vinyl dimethyl azlactone) (PGMA-b-PVDMA), are presented. Due to the high reactivity of azlactone groups towards amine, thiol, and hydroxyl groups, PGMA-b-PVDMA surfaces can be modified with secondary molecules to create chemically or biologically functionalized interfaces for a variety of applications. Previous reports of patterned PGMA-b-PVDMA interfaces have used traditional top-down patterning techniques that generate non-uniform films and poorly controlled background chemistries. Here, we describe customized patterning techniques that enable precise deposition of highly uniform PGMA-b-PVDMA films in backgrounds that are chemically inert or that have biomolecule-repellent properties. Importantly, these methods are designed to deposit PGMA-b-PVDMA films in a manner that completely preserves azlactone functionality through each processing step. Patterned films show well-controlled thicknesses that correspond to polymer brushes (~90 nm) or to highly crosslinked structures (~1-10 &#956;m). Brush patterns are generated using either the parylene lift-off or interface directed assembly methods described and are useful for precise modulation of overall chemical surface reactivity by adjusting either the PGMA-b-PVDMA pattern density or the length of the VDMA block. In contrast, the thick, crosslinked PGMA-b-PVDMA patterns are obtained using a customized micro-contact printing technique and offer the benefit of higher loading or capture of secondary material due to higher surface area to volume ratios. Detailed experimental steps, critical film characterizations, and trouble-shooting guides for each fabrication method are discussed.

Surface fabrication methods for patterned deposition of nanometer thick brushes or micron thick, crosslinked films of an azlactone block co-polymer are reported. Critical experimental steps, representative results, and limitations of each method are discussed. These methods are useful for creating functional interfaces with tailored physical features and tunable surface reactivity.

Azlactone 功能块共聚物的刷状和交联膜制备反应表面

In this paper, fabrication methods that generate novel surfaces using the azlactone-based block co-polymer, poly (glycidyl methacrylate)-block-poly (vinyl ...

工程学

Polymeric Microneedle Array Fabrication by Photolithography

This manuscript describes the fabrication of polymeric microneedle (MN) arrays by photolithography. It involves a simple mold-free process by using a photomask consisting of embedded micro-lenses. Embedded micro-lenses were found to influence MN geometry (sharpness). Robust MN arrays with tip diameters ranging between 41.5 &#181;m &#177; 8.4 &#181;m and 71.6 &#181;m &#177; 13.7 &#181;m, with two different lengths (1,336 &#181;m &#177; 193 &#181;m and 957 &#181;m &#177; 171 &#181;m) were fabricated. These MN arrays may provide potential applications in delivery of low molecular and macromolecular therapeutic agents through skin.

Here, we present a protocol describing a mold-free fabrication process of the polymeric microneedles by photolithography.

聚合物微针阵列制造用光刻

This manuscript describes the fabrication of polymeric microneedle (MN) arrays by photolithography. It involves a simple mold-free process by using a ...

Inkjet Printing All Inorganic Halide Perovskite Inks for Photovoltaic Applications

A method for synthesizing photoactive inorganic&#160;perovskite quantum dot inks and an inkjet printer deposition method, using the synthesized inks, are demonstrated. The ink synthesis is based on a simple wet chemical reaction and the inkjet printing protocol is a facile step by step method. The inkjet printed thin films have been characterized by X-ray diffraction, optical absorption spectroscopy, photoluminescent spectroscopy, and electronic transport measurements. X-ray diffraction of the printed quantum dot films indicates a crystal structure consistent with an orthorhombic room temperature phase with (001) orientation. In conjunction with other characterization methods, the X-ray diffraction&#160;measurements show high quality films can be obtained through the inkjet printing method.

A protocol for synthesizing inorganic-lead-halide hybrid perovskite quantum dot inks for inkjet printing and the protocol for preparing and printing the quantum dot inks in an inkjet printer with post characterization techniques are presented.

用于光伏应用的喷墨打印所有无机舱齐德 perovskite 油墨

A method for synthesizing photoactive inorganic&#160;perovskite quantum dot inks and an inkjet printer deposition method, using the synthesized inks, are ...

Hybrid Printing for the Fabrication of Smart Sensors

A method to combine additively manufactured substrates or foils and multilayer inkjet printing for the fabrication of sensor devices is presented. First, three substrates (acrylate, ceramics, and copper) are prepared. To determine the resulting material properties of these substrates, profilometer, contact angle, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and focused ion beam (FIB) measurements are done. The achievable printing resolution and suitable drop volume for each substrate are, then, found through the drop size tests. Then, layers of insulating and conductive ink are inkjet printed alternately to fabricate the target sensor structures. After each printing step, the respective layers are individually treated by photonic curing. The parameters used for the curing of each layer are adapted depending on the printed ink, as well as on the surface properties of the respective substrate. To confirm the resulting conductivity and to determine the quality of the printed surface, four-point probe and profilometer measurements are done. Finally, a measurement set-up and results achieved by such an all-printed sensor system are shown to demonstrate the achievable quality.

Here we present a protocol for the fabrication of inkjet-printed multilayer sensor structures on additively manufactured substrates and foil.

用于智能传感器制造的混合打印

A method to combine additively manufactured substrates or foils and multilayer inkjet printing for the fabrication of sensor devices is presented. First, ...

Multimodal 3D Printing of Phantoms to Simulate Biological Tissue

Biomedical optical imaging is playing an important role in diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. However, the accuracy and the reproducibility of an optical imaging device are greatly affected by the performance characteristics of its components, the test environment, and the operations. Therefore, it is necessary to calibrate these devices by traceable phantom standards. However, most of the currently available phantoms are homogeneous phantoms that cannot simulate multimodal and dynamic characteristics of biological tissue. Here, we show the fabrication of heterogeneous tissue-simulating phantoms using a production line integrating a spin coating module, a polyjet module, a fused deposition modeling (FDM) module, and an automatic control framework. The structural information and the optical parameters of a &#34;digital optical phantom&#34; are defined in a prototype file, imported to the production line, and fabricated layer-by-layer with sequential switch between different printing modalities. Technical capability of such a production line is exemplified by the automatic printing of skin-simulating phantoms that comprise the epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tissue, and an embedded tumor.

Spin coating, polyjet printing, and fused deposition modeling are integrated to produce multilayered heterogeneous phantoms that simulate structural and functional properties of biological tissue.

幻影的多模态3D打印模拟生物组织

Biomedical optical imaging is playing an important role in diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. However, the accuracy and the reproducibility of ...

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to entry for non-specialists who would benefit greatly from the ability to develop their own microfluidic devices to address research questions. Particularly lacking has been the open dissemination of protocols related to photolithography, a key step in the development of a replica mold for the manufacture of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. While the fabrication of single height silicon masters has been explored extensively in literature, fabrication steps for more complicated photolithography features necessary for many interesting device functionalities (such as feature rounding to make valve structures, multi-height single-mold patterning, or high aspect ratio definition) are often not explicitly outlined. 
Here, we provide a complete protocol for making multilayer microfluidic devices with valves and complex multi-height geometries, tunable for any application. These fabrication procedures are presented in the context of a microfluidic hydrogel bead synthesizer and demonstrate the production of droplets containing polyethylene glycol (PEG diacrylate) and a photoinitiator that can be polymerized into solid beads. This protocol and accompanying discussion provide a foundation of design principles and fabrication methods that enables development of a wide variety of microfluidic devices. The details included here should allow non-specialists to design and fabricate novel devices, thereby bringing a host of recently developed technologies to their most exciting applications in biological laboratories.

Multilayer microfluidic devices often involve the fabrication of master molds with complex geometries for functionality. This article presents a complete protocol for multi-step photolithography with valves and variable height features tunable to any application. As a demonstration, we fabricate a microfluidic droplet generator capable of producing hydrogel beads.

多级可变高度的光刻多层带瓣微流体装置

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to ...

Frugal Imaging Technique of Capillary Flow Through Three-Dimensional Polymeric Printing Powders

The development of novel imaging techniques of molecular and colloidal transport, including nanoparticles, is an area of active investigation in microfluidic and millifluidic studies. With the advent of three-dimensional (3D) printing, a new domain of materials has emerged, thereby increasing the demand for novel polymers. Specifically, polymeric powders, with average particle sizes on the order of a micron, are experiencing a growing interest from academic and industrial communities. Controlling material tunability at the mesoscopic to microscopic length scales creates opportunities to develop innovative materials, such as gradient materials. Recently, a need for micron-sized polymeric powders has been growing, as clear applications for the material are developing. Three-dimensional printing provides a high-throughput process with a direct link to new applications, driving investigations into the physio-chemical and transport interactions on a mesoscale. The protocol that is discussed in this article provides a non-invasive technique to image fluid flow in packed powder beds, providing high temporal and spatial resolution while leveraging mobile technology that is readily available from mobile devices, such as smartphones. By utilizing a common mobile device, the imaging costs that would normally be associated with an optical microscope are eliminated, resulting in a frugal-science approach. The proposed protocol has successfully characterized a variety of combinations of fluids and powders, creating a diagnostic platform for quickly imaging and identifying an optimal combination of fluid and powder.

The proposed technique will provide a novel, efficient, frugal, and non-invasive approach for imaging fluidic flow through a packed powder bed, yielding high spatial and temporal resolution.