Name: preparation of non-human primate brain tissue for pre-embedding immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy
Uploaded: 2017-04-03T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Non-human Primate Brain Tissue for Pre-embedding Immunohistochemistry and Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

This study was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, 401848-2011 to M.P.). M.P received a career award from the Fonds de recherche du Qu&#233;bec-Sant&#233; (FRQ-S). L.E. was the recipient of a doctoral fellowship from the FRQ-S (FRQ-S 14D 29441). We thank Marie-Jos&#233;e Wallman for technical assistance.

Ethics Statement: All protocols involving animals were approved by the Comit&#233; de Protection des Animaux de l&#39;Universit&#233; Laval and were made in accordance with the Canadian Council on Animal Care&#39;s Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals (Ed. 2). The protocol described here was optimized for adult animals of approximately 800 g. The volumes of fixative should be adjusted according to the animal&#39;s size.
1. Preparation of Solutions for Transcardiac Perfusion
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In this article, we present a reliable protocol for transcardiac perfusion of non-human primates and pre-embedding immunohistochemistry suitable for EM sample examination. Although typical cryo-EM, such as CEMOVIS, provides a good preservation of brain ultrastructure, it also limits the use of immunohistochemistry12. Other techniques, including cryo-substitution and Tokuyaso technique, allow post-embedding immunohistochemistry, but these techniques are expensive due to additional devices needed du...

Light microscopy, including confocal and two-photon microscopy, has proven to be an efficient tool for studying in vivo neuronal processes, among other things1,2. Although the typical spatial resolution at the Light Microscopic (LM) level is approximately 200 nm, recent technological advances using different light sources, such as extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray microscopy, have notably increased this resolution to a nearly 10 nm spatial resolution3,4,5. Other technological advances in imaging include combined magnetic resonance imaging with histology and provide a novel method for measuring the thickness of the myelin sheath in vivo, a parameter that was traditionally measurable only at the Electron Microscopic (EM) level6,7. Although these advances at the LM level provide an excellent tool for studying living processes, a detailed view and characterization of structures, such as synaptic contacts, can only be achieved with EM, which offers a resolution that can reach 0.5 nm. However, observation at the EM level requires the specimens to be dead and altered in some ways, with chemical fixatives and dehydration processes, in order to preserve the cytoarchitecture. Thus, examining biological samples at high resolution can be challenging due to radiation damage from the electron beam, low contrast, structural deviations of membranes, or even the presence of artifacts that can occur following dehydration and epoxy embedding8,9,10.
Preserving specimens in their native form for structural analysis can be achieved by using &#34;Cryo EM of Vitrified Sections&#34; or CEMOVIS, a sectioning approach that involves rapidly freezing and embedding the sample in vitreous ice and examining the sections under the EM at a cryogenic temperature11,12. This procedure allows for the examination of samples while they are still solid and fully hydrated, thus eliminating artifacts caused by dehydration processes13. However, this method involves additional devices for cryo-ultramicrotomy, as well as additional devices on the standard EM, in order to allow this observation at very low temperatures, which generate significant additional costs. In addition, the CEMOVIS approach precludes the use of immunolabeling techniques, since antibodies usually have to be incubated at RT. Alternatively, it is possible to combine ultrastructural analysis with immunohistochemical procedures by using a freeze-substitution approach, during which cryo-fixed specimens are slowly thawed while immerged in cryo-protective chemicals and are then embedded in specialized resins, such as Lowicryls. Post-embedding immunolabeling can then be performed on such material12. However, freeze-substitution and cryo-fixation techniques are time consuming. They require the installation of additional equipment and still require samples to be exposed to organic solvent and chemical fixative that can alter the cytoarchitecture, despite the use of a low temperature14,15. Hence, despite all the technological advances both at the LM and EM level, chemical fixation of brain tissue, particularly with acrolein, remains a low-cost and time-efficient method to combine immunohistochemistry with EM16.
In the last decades, many attempts were made to find a mixture of aldehydes that provide the best tissue preservation. Before the 1960s, the only chemical fixative that gave acceptable results for EM was osmium tetroxide. However, osmium tetroxide is highly toxic and expensive, precluding its use through the vascular system to fix organs such as the brain. Acrolein was introduced in the late 1950s as a reliable method for animal tissue preservation suitable for EM observation of cellular structures17. It penetrates the tissue more deeply and reacts more quickly than other aldehydes when used for fixation by immersion and allows good preservation of cytoplasmic components, with minimal shrinkage of the tissue17. Such a feature gives acrolein fixation a clear advantage over other aldehydes when used in fresh tissue, by allowing a more accurate localization of living molecular compounds, such as enzymes and other proteins18. Indeed, it has been validated through the years as an easy, efficient and low-cost method of fixation for visualization at the EM level in many species, including amphibians and rodents, as it efficiently stabilizes peptides and proteins, retains antigenicity and provides relatively intact ultrastructure when used in combination with another aldehyde fixative16,18,19,20,21. Protocols for acrolein fixation in rodents have since then been standardized and used extensively, particularly by the Pickel group, to implement dual immunolabeling for EM16,22. A few groups have used acrolein fixation in non-human primate brain tissue23. However, to our knowledge, there is only one published protocol efficiently describing chemical fixation with acrolein in non-human primates that is compatible with EM immunolabeling24.
In this article, we provide an easy and reliable method to efficiently chemically fix non-human primate brains with acrolein, allowing for a potentially long-term preservation along with pre-embedding immunolabeling and transmission EM examination.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="634">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:216px;">Dibasic anhydrous sodium phosphate (Na2HPO4)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S374-500</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="67">
			<td height="67" style="height:67px;width:216px;">Monobasic monohydrate sodium phosphate (NaH2PO4.H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EM Science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SX0710-1</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S271-3</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Hydroxymethyl aminomethane (THAM)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T370-500</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">HCl&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EMD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HX0603-3</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1N dilution. Product is corrosive. Use with appropriate potection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">NaOH</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EMD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SX0590-1</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">5N dilution. Product is corrosive. Use with appropriate protection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="147">
			<td height="147" style="height:147px;width:216px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P6148</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">4% dilution. Product is highly volatile in its powder form and highly toxic. Use with caution under a venting hood with appropriate protection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Acrolein (90%)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">sigma</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">110221</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">3% dilution. Product is highly toxic. Use under a venting hood with appropriate protection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Autopsy venting table</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Mopec</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CE400</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Electronic perfusion pump</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">cole parmer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">masterflex L/S 7523-90</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Needle (perfusion)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">terumo&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NN-1838R</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">18G 1 1/2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Needle</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">terumo&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NN-2713R</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">21G 1/2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ketamine</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;">20 mg/kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;">4 mg/kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Acepromazine</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;">0.5 mg/kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Scalpel</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Scalpel blades</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Feather&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; lance</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">201011&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; J9913</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">No.22 for surgery and&#160;&#160;&#160; No. 11 for EM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Surgical scissors</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Rongeurs</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Vibratome</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">VT 1200S</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Calibrate blade before each use, when the device allows it</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Vibratome razor blade</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Gillette</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GIN 642107</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G33-4</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">30% dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ethylene glycol</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E178-4</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">30% dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">Sodium borohydride (NaBH4)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S-9125</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Normal horse serum</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Jackson immunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>008-000-121</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">2% dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Cold-fish gelatin</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Aurion</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">900.033</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">0.5% dilution. Original product is concentrated at 40%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Primary antibody, SERT</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Santa Cruz biotechnology</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SC-1458</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1/500 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Primary antibody, ChAT</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Chemicon (Millipore)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AB144P</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1/25 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Primary antibody, TH</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">ImmunoStar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">22941</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1/1000 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Biotinylated secondary antibody, goat</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Vector laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BA-9500</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1/1000 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Biotinylated secondary antibody, mouse</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Vector laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BA-2000</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">1/1000 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Vectastain elite ABC kit</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Vector laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PK6100</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">8.8 &#181;L/mL of A and B each</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">3&#39;3 diaminobenzidine (DAB)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D5637</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">0,05% dilution. Product is highly volatile in its powder form and toxic. Do not throw waste in the sink.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">Peroxide (H2O2) 30%</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H-323</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">0,005% dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="212">
			<td height="212" style="height:212px;width:216px;">Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">2% 19152&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 4% 19150&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Original solution can be either 2% ou 4%. Keep attention to which one is used to calculate the final 1% dilution. Product is very sensitive to light. Osmium is highly toxic. Use only under a venting hood with appropriate protection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="189">
			<td height="189" style="height:189px;width:216px;">Durcupan water-repellent epoxy resin</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A: M epoxy resin (44611)&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; B: hardener 964 (44612)&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; C: accelerator 960 (DY 060)&#160; (44613)&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; D: plasticizer (44614)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Polymerize 48h at 58 &#176;C before throwing in waste.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Alumium cups</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">70048-01</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">commercial alcohols</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1019C</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Dilute in distilled water with appropriate concentration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Propylene oxide</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20401</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Organic solvent. Highly volatile and toxic. Use under a venting hood.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Non-coated medium glass slides</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">brain research laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3875-FR</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Grease surface with mineral oil</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Plastic film (Aclar embedding film)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">50425-25</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Grease surface with mineral oil</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ultramicrotome</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Leica UC7</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EM UC7</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Diamond trimming tool (ultratrim)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Diatome&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UT 1081</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Can use glass knife alternatively</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Ultra 45&#176; Diatome Diamond knife</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Diatome&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MC13437</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">equipped with a boat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Xylenes</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">X5SK-4</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">150-mesh copper grids</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G150-cu</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">grid-box</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">71138</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Can store up to 100 grids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sodium citrate</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Anachemia</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">81983</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="336">
			<td height="336" style="height:336px;width:216px;">Lead nitrate</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L-6258</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Make a stock solution of lead citrate made of 1.33 g of lead nitrate and 1.76g of sodium citrate diluted in 42 mL of pre-boiled and cooled distilled water to which 8 mL of 1N NaOH are added after the conversion from lead nitrate to lead citrate is complete. pH should be approximately 12. Store solution in a hermetic plastic bottle and protect from light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Syringe</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">terumo&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SS-05L</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Syringe filter</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">corning</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">431222</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">0.2 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Absorbing paper (bibulous paper)</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Electron microscopic science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">70086-1</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Parafilm</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Laboratory film</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PM-999</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Mineral oil</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M5904</td>
			<td style="width:177px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of non-human primate brain tissue for pre-embedding immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy

Despite all the technological advances at the light microscopy&#160;level, electron microscopy remains the only tool in neuroscience to examine and characterize ultrastructural and morphological details of neurons, such as synaptic contacts. Good preservation of brain tissue for electron microscopy can be obtained by rigorous cryo-fixation methods, but these techniques are rather costly and limit the use of immunolabeling, which is crucial to understand the connectivity of identified neuronal systems. Freeze-substitution methods have been developed to allow the combination of cryo-fixation with immunolabeling. However, the reproducibility of these methodological approaches usually relies on costly freezing devices. Moreover, achieving reliable results with this technique is very time-consuming and skill-challenging. Hence, the traditional chemically fixed brain, particularly with acrolein fixative, remains a time-efficient and low-cost method to combine electron microscopy with immunohistochemistry. Here, we provide a reliable experimental protocol using chemical acrolein fixation that leads to the preservation of primate brain tissue and is compatible with pre-embedding immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopic examination.

In this section, we present representative results that were obtained following the observation, at the transmission EM&#160;level, of immunostained primate brain tissue chemically fixed with a mixture of 3% acrolein and 4% PFA. We achieved good preservation of the ultrastructure, as indicated by the relatively intact myelin sheath and the neat visualization of double membranes (Figure 2A). Synaptic contacts, along with neuronal elements from the microenvironment, can eas...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Non-human Primate Brain Tissue for Pre-embedding Immunohistochemistry and Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

Preparation of Non-human Primate Brain Tissue for Pre-embedding Immunohistochemistry and Electron Microscopy

Here, we provide an easy, low-cost, and time-efficient protocol to chemically fix primate brain tissue with acrolein fixative, allowing for long-term preservation that is compatible with pre-embedding immunohistochemistry for transmission electron microscopy.

Despite all the technological advances at the light microscopy&#160;level, electron microscopy remains the only tool in neuroscience to examine and ...

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DiOLISTIC Labeling of Neurons from Rodent and Non-human Primate Brain Slices

DiOLISTIC staining uses the gene gun to introduce fluorescent dyes, such as DiI, into neurons of brain slices (Gan et al., 2009; O'Brien and Lummis, 2007; ...

Focussed Ion Beam Milling and Scanning Electron Microscopy of Brain Tissue

This protocol describes how biological samples, like brain tissue, can be imaged in three dimensions using the focussed ion beam/scanning electron ...

Wholemount Immunohistochemistry for Revealing Complex Brain Topography

The repeated and well-understood cellular architecture of the cerebellum make it an ideal model system for exploring brain topography. Underlying its ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow ...

The Olfactory System as a Model to Study Axonal Growth Patterns and Morphology In Vivo

The Olfactory System as a Model to Study Axonal Growth Patterns and Morphology In Vivo

The olfactory system has the unusual capacity to generate new neurons throughout the lifetime of an organism. Olfactory stem cells in the basal portion of ...

Primer for Immunohistochemistry on Cryosectioned Rat Brain Tissue: Example Staining for Microglia and Neurons

Immunohistochemistry is a widely used technique for detecting the presence, location, and relative abundance of antigens in situ. This introductory level ...

Analysis of Brain Mitochondria Using Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy

Human brain is a high energy consuming organ that mainly relies on glucose as a fuel source. Glucose is catabolized by brain mitochondria via glycolysis, ...