这项研究是由美国国家科学基金会的研究生研究奖学金到达尼埃尔·R·珀欣齐克和美国国立卫生研究院资助桑德拉·韦克斯曼R.（R01HD083310）的支持。

下面的步骤是由西北大学机构审查委员会批准，并从所有婴幼儿的照顾者获得了知情同意书。我们招募被提出婴幼儿的环境中有超过50％的接触英语11，17。在所有实验婴幼儿先听取了我们的操作曝光向狐猴发声或向后讲话配乐;然后，他们参加了一个对象分类的任务。什么跨婴儿变化是（A）他们在曝光操作听到信号的类型和分类任务（无论是狐猴的叫声或向后语音）和（b）的曝光阶段的程度（在实验室或者短暂暴露或长时间曝光在家）。对于所有婴儿，分类任务发生在实验室。 1.材料<ol><li> 如何创建曝光操作<ol><li>选择8个不同的狐猴发声的样品和8个不同的反向语音的样本，每2至4秒的持续时间。在一起时，8个样品应产生每个声信号的30秒。确保狐猴和向后的语音段作为紧密匹配尽可能为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 <ol><li>为了获得狐猴叫声，搜索动物发声的数据库或咨询研究员谁收集的动物的叫声。 </li><li>要建立落后的声音片段，使用一台笔记本电脑和一个软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）（1）记录的研究助理说〜婴儿定向语音和（2）时间上逆向3秒的句子（在Audacity中:效果&gt;反向）每个语音段。 </li></ol></li><li>选择一首经典器乐比4分钟长的。在这里，我们使用在C小调，作品18第4号贝多芬四重奏的前4分钟:III。Menuetto。 </li><li>使用音频编辑软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）导入的音乐（在Audacity中:文件&gt;导入），选择一块的持续时间大约4分钟的一部分（突出显示和删除片的其余部分）。 <ol><li>通过插入（ 即 ，复制和粘贴）每种类型的8个选定段（发声狐猴或向后语音）到音乐声道创建2个不同的音轨。 </li><li>要创建"狐猴"的配乐，在相同的软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）打开8狐猴发声的声音文件，并将其插入到与音乐文件。 <ol><li>要做到这一点，突出整个狐猴发声，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将在音乐文件中的光标，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。插入不定期的发声整个配乐。不要将它们放置在乐句边界。这样做两次，每次狐猴发声，inserti在一个pseudorandomized顺序纳克它们，以确保发生在一行没有2周相同的发声。总之，这产生了5分钟循环（音乐的4分钟，用狐猴发声的1分钟穿插）。 </li><li>从而使整个音带持续大约10分钟，重复该5分钟的音乐。为了这样做，突出显示整个5分钟部，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将光标放置在5分钟部的端部，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。 </li></ol></li><li>以产生10分钟"向后"讲话配乐，替换狐猴音带与向后语音的选择段的每个狐猴发声，使用相同的pseudorandomized顺序。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> 如何创建分类任务 <ol><li>视觉材料:手工创建2套线图纸。在每组中，包括相同对象类别的成员9（这里，使用9个不同恐龙的附图和9张不同的鱼图纸）。使用differenŤ明亮的颜色对于给定类别内的每个图形。扫描这些图纸到计算机并保存为图像文件。需要注意的是，图纸应在测试的年龄不熟悉的物体婴儿。 </li><li>声学材料:选择一个狐猴发声和不包括在任一曝光操作（1.1.3）中的一个向后语音段。尽可能接近地匹配狐猴和向后的语音段为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 </li><li>程序MATLAB任务包括熟悉阶段和测试阶段;这项任务将由5英尺屏幕在婴儿面前投射到5英尺<ol><li>编程熟悉阶段，使得来自单个类别视觉范例的8（ 例如 ，8个恐龙，每一个不同的颜色）依次出现。每个示例性应显示20秒，在右侧或屏幕的左侧，以交替的方式。科瑞e 2级的不同的版本中，每个配对熟悉范例下面（"狐猴"和"向后"讲话的条件下，分别地）的声刺激中的一个。在这两种情况下，应该对每个熟悉试验中出现两次的声刺激;一旦当视觉典范出现，并再次10秒后。 <ol><li>在狐猴条件下，程序中的每个熟悉范例与一个狐猴发声同时出现。 </li><li>在反向语音状态，程序中的每个熟悉范例同时与一个后向语音段出现。 </li></ol></li><li>在测试阶段期间，从熟悉类别（ 例如 ，另一个恐龙）和来自其他类别的示例性（ 例如 ，鱼）呈现第 9典范。这两个图像的颜色应相同，并且同时呈现（一个呈现在右侧，另一个在屏幕的左侧）在沉默20秒。 </li></ol&gt; </li><li>在编程的分类任务，平衡（1），其类将在熟悉阶段，（2）在其上第一熟悉图像出现在侧面，和（3）的一侧在其上新的和熟悉测试图像将出现呈现。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.一般程序<ol><li> 曝光阶段 <ol><li>将婴儿靠近看护人或在他们的腿上在一个安静的区域。放置一个膝上型或平板婴儿的观看范围（从1到从婴儿4英尺）之内。 </li><li>使用笔记本电脑或平板电脑呈现无论是狐猴或向后语音配乐。 </li></ol></li><li> 分类任务 <ol><li>在实验室中较暗的试验室，一个椅子上通过5英尺屏幕从5英尺4英尺座位护理人员。笔记本电脑连接在MATLAB编程为（1）屏幕中的分类的任务，将显示该分类任务以及（2）一幻灯构造函数，将项目任务到屏幕上。 </li><li>席位照顾者的腿上婴儿，朝前。 </li><li>指导护理人员以避免以任何方式影响婴儿的行为。更具体地讲，指示他们保持安静，还在整个任务的持续时间，并保持他们的婴儿为中心，用他们的中线为指导。提供有一对涂黑的眼镜护理人员，以确保它们不能看到视觉材料。 </li><li>打开投影机。 </li><li>打开录音设备来捕获整个任务婴儿的行为。 </li><li>在MATLAB按下"运行"开始分类任务:目前狐猴条件，如果婴儿暴露于狐猴的配乐，如果婴儿暴露于向后讲话原声语音落后状态。 </li></ol></li><li> 编码（仅适用于分类任务） <ol><li>代码的开始和每个婴儿乐偏移英尺，在双方的熟悉和测试阶段看起来是对的。 </li><li>排除婴儿谁（1）看熟悉的范例小于6; （2）熟悉阶段的小于40％时的样子。另外，还要排除婴儿，如果有父母干涉，实验误差或技术故障，或如果在测试其性能与平均值大于2 SD。 </li></ol></li><li> 分析 <ol><li>对于熟悉阶段，计算总的时间每个婴儿看了熟悉对象的量。 </li><li>对于测试阶段，计算每个婴儿的偏好得分:（总的寻找时间新型测试图像）/（总的寻找时间以两个测试图像）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.实验1:短暂暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在6〜7个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请日Ë照顾者和婴儿成一个安静，舒适的房间。在我们的实验室，这个房间是相邻的考场。 </li><li>曝光操作:播放狐猴配乐一次，用音乐可视化工具（ 例如 iTunes）出现在屏幕上。 </li><li>分类任务:当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 4.实验2:短暂暴露于向后语音<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>相同实验1。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请看护者和婴幼儿到一个安静，舒适的房间。 </li><li>曝光操作:播放向后语音配乐一次，出现在屏幕上的音乐可视化。 </li><li>分类任务:当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（BackwaRD语音条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5.实验3:长时间暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在4.5个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>通过电话，邀请护理人员参加6周之久的研究。解释说，这项研究需要他们暴露自己的婴儿，在家中，在10分钟的配乐包含音乐的8分钟和狐猴发声的2分钟（ 即狐猴配乐）。解释说，这项研究持续了6周，当婴儿为4.5个月，自当婴儿6月龄结束。 </li><li>提供与此精确锥形时间表7，8，18护理人员<ol><li>第1周:播放电影配乐婴儿每天一次，每一天。 </li><li>第2周:播放电影配乐婴儿隔日一次。 </li><l我&gt; 3周:在一周播放配乐婴儿的3倍。 </li><li> 4-6周:每周播放配乐婴儿的2倍。 </li></ol></li><li>为了确保曝光操作的整个6周的曝光操作的保真度，与照顾者共享在线交互式文档（一）在整个6周时期和（b）要求他们记录每一个日期和时间的每一步概括自己的角色他们扮演的配乐，以他们的婴儿。 </li><li>通过电话或电子邮件每周发送提醒保持护理人员从事和轨道上。 </li><li>在5周，安排下一周（6周）实验室参观。指导，婴儿应该听配乐他们预定的实验室访问前2〜4天护理人员;婴儿不应该听配乐无论是在当天或他们的访问的前一天。 注:在实验室参观，没有曝光操作:婴幼儿只有在从Experimen分类任务参与T 1（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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作者什么都没有透露。

在这里，我们勾勒出可用于在婴儿期及早联的声音和核心认知过程的体验角色的过程。我们的组合的实验记录了第一个证据经验起着引导婴儿到指定信号，从广泛的初始集合的可能性的中心作用，它们将利用核心概念流程，最终提供的含义的基础。他们还揭示了先天和后天之间错综复杂的接口:虽然经验起到多大的作用，如果有的话，在确定广泛的，婴儿最初链接到认知的17个信?...

人类婴儿出生准备收购的语言，文化和认知工具，我们定义为一个物种，从根本上塑造了我们的发展。中央对我们的学习语言能力的人的发展的两个特点:我们altriciality和我们强大的学习策略。总之，这些功能解锁早期的可塑性，使婴儿是高度切合他们的环境投入相当大的程度。例如，尽管婴儿来到这个世界与一组感知偏好和歧视性的能力足够宽以包括面和人类和非人灵长类动物的声音，在几个月内它们缩小这些偏好为排他性人类信号1，2，3。感知变窄的过程是自适应的在两个方面:它增加相关交际信号R的信噪比12;那些将引导婴幼儿高效准确地定位其复杂的社会世界-它铺平了道路，跨越感性的方式整合信息的方式（ 例如 ，整合音容）4 -为人类语言的本质多式联运的一个基本要素。而且，由于婴儿的早期可塑性的，感性变窄可以防止或与暴露于外来的信号（ 例如 ，非天然语言，非人脸，外国音乐节拍）5，6,8反转。这说明知觉变窄体验驱动的。 然而，要掌握自己的母语，婴幼儿必须做的比调更多的面孔和其扬声器的声音。人类语言的力量是密不可分的认知9。令人难以置信的是，即使是在生命的第一年，婴儿具有B-EGUN链接语言与认知:只需听人类语言促进婴儿，以形成对象的类别能力，构建块为他们的认知10，11，12。 这并不是说，婴儿只能形成对象的类别，如果他们是听语言。相反，几十年的研究显示，在其生命的最初几个月的婴儿可以形成在没有任何声音，13中的至少一些对象的类别。但并不是所有的对象类别是同样容易对婴儿形成。稍微更困难的类别提供了有力的机会，发现如果有的话，语言可能对婴儿的分类有什么影响。要做到这一点，研究人员识别更难对象类别婴儿在没有其他辅助信息（如语言）识别，然后询问是否语言（和其他声音<html> ）婴幼儿提供任何优势，在分类。 使用这样的逻辑，语言和对象分类之间的早期联系在一个新颖性优先模式设计成适应非常小的婴儿（ 图1b）11记录。这种模式有两个阶段。在熟悉阶段，所有婴儿查看一系列不同对象（ 例如 ，恐龙）的图像与声音一起顺序地呈现。在测试阶段期间，所有婴儿在沉默查看两个新的图像:一张是现在熟悉的类别（ 例如 ，另一恐龙）的一个新成员，而另一个是一个新颖类别的（ 例如 ，鱼）的部件。婴儿在测试的寻找时间作为分类的指标。如果婴儿形成熟悉期间的类别，则在测试他们应该从熟悉图像区分小说。如果婴儿不这样做，那么在测试他们应该有机会执行"&gt; 14，15，16。 结果是惊人的。在3,4，和6个月，婴儿熟悉期间收听语言-但不是音调序列-成功地形成对象的类别11，17。出人意料的是，语言是不是发挥这种优势的认知唯一的声音:在第3和4个月，听着非人灵长类动物的发声（马达加斯加，蓝眼睛狐猴:Eulemur狐猿flavifrons）款赋予相同的认知优势，因为人的发声17。 6个月的年龄，但婴幼儿已调整这个最初广泛的人权具体发声的链接;狐猴发声不再会对婴儿分类17的效果。 但是，什么样的机制underlies婴儿增加精度联的语言和认识？在这里，我们考虑的婴儿经历的贡献。请问婴儿与人类语言（和他们的经验，听狐猴叫声缺乏）发挥作用，因为它们最初缩小特权信号（ 例如 ，人与非人灵长类动物发声）和对象分类的核心认知过程之间的联系 ，丰富的经验？当然，我们无法通过操纵婴儿接触到的语言进行测试。但是，我们可以操纵他们接触到狐猴发声。我们专注于婴幼儿在6和7个月的婴儿-婴儿谁，在没有曝光，不再联系狐猴发声和对象分类17。在实验1中，我们要求短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声是否允许他们保持这种信号和对象分类之间的联系。在实验2中，我们询问是否短暂暴露于落后的演讲 - 这始终未能支持对象范畴上的信号在化17任何年龄-也促进了对象分类。在实验3，我们把暴露的问题，以更严格的测试，考察更长时间暴露在狐猴叫声是否允许他们保留其最初宽泛的链接。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Laptop 1</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for presenting exposure soundtrack; preferably using iTunes Visualizer</td></tr><tr><td>Laptop 2</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for programming and presenting categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Laptop 3 (optional)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for coding infant looking behavior (can also use one of the above laptops)</td></tr><tr><td>Coding software</td><td>SuperCoder</td><td></td><td>Use for coding infant looking behavior</td></tr><tr><td>Video recorder</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for recording infants&#039; face (looking behavior during categorization task)</td></tr><tr><td>Mixer</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for integrating information from the video recorder (infant looking behavior) and the visual stimuli (categorization task)&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>DVD player</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for recording the input from the video recorder (infant looking behavior)</td></tr><tr><td>Television</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for viewing input from mixer (screen-in-screen; categorization task in corner of screen showing infant looking behavior)&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Projector</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for projecting visual stimuli of categorization task on screen</td></tr><tr><td>Speakers</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for presenting auditory stimuli during categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Blacked-out sunglasses</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for blocking caretaker&#039;s vision during categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Statistical analysis software</td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Use for analyzing infant looking behavior</td></tr></tbody></table>

experience is instrumental in tuning a link between language and cognition: evidence from 6-  to 7- month-old infants' object categorization

出生时，婴儿不仅喜欢听人发声，但也已经开始发声这些链接到认知:对于婴儿年仅三个月大时，听人语言支持对象分类，一个核心的认知能力。这个早熟的链接最初是广:在第3和4个月，人类和非人类灵长类动物的发声支持分类。但到了6个月，婴儿已经缩小的链接:只有人类发声支持对象分类。在这里，我们问导游婴幼儿，因为他们调整自己最初广泛链接到一个更精确的一个，只有我们人类的发声接合。在三个研究中，我们使用了一种新的范式曝光考察经验的影响。我们的文件，只是暴露婴儿非人灵长类动物叫声使婴儿保持这种信号和分类之间的早期建立的链路。与此相反，露出婴儿到向后的语音 - 信号失败于任何年龄，以支持分类 - 没有提供这样的优势。我们的研究结果揭示早期经验的功率为婴幼儿指定信号，从最初广泛的，他们将继续链接到认知。

使用以上（ 图1）中列出的程序，我们跑了三个实验来测试曝光的效果婴儿细化某些声音和认知之间的联系。 实验1的结果表明，短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声了惊人的效果。七暴露于狐猴发声月婴儿可靠地优选的新型测试图像，M = 0.57， 标准差 = 0.09; T（13）= 3.12，P = 0.008，D = 1.73（ <stron...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization at JoVE.com

Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。

经验是器乐在调整语言与认知之间的联系:证据的6至7个月大的婴儿对象分类

At birth, infants not only prefer listening to human vocalizations, but also have begun to link these vocalizations to cognition: For infants as young as ...

experience-is-instrumental-tuning-link-between-language-cognition

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Thinking, Language And Intelligence

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

6.6K 次观看.  Northwestern University. 在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。 

视频: Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

Creating Objects and Object Categories for Studying Perception and Perceptual Learning

In order to quantitatively study object perception, be it perception by biological systems or by machines, one needs to create objects and object categories with precisely definable, preferably naturalistic, properties1. Furthermore, for studies on perceptual learning, it is useful to create novel objects and object categories (or object classes) with such properties2.
Many innovative and useful methods currently exist for creating novel objects and object categories3-6 (also see refs. 7,8). However, generally speaking, the existing methods have three broad types of shortcomings.
First, shape variations are generally imposed by the experimenter5,9,10, and may therefore be different from the variability in natural categories, and optimized for a particular recognition algorithm. It would be desirable to have the variations arise independently of the externally imposed constraints.
Second, the existing methods have difficulty capturing the shape complexity of natural objects11-13. If the goal is to study natural object perception, it is desirable for objects and object categories to be naturalistic, so as to avoid possible confounds and special cases.
Third, it is generally hard to quantitatively measure the available information in the stimuli created by conventional methods. It would be desirable to create objects and object categories where the available information can be precisely measured and, where necessary, systematically manipulated (or 'tuned'). This allows one to formulate the underlying object recognition tasks in quantitative terms.
Here we describe a set of algorithms, or methods, that meet all three of the above criteria. Virtual morphogenesis (VM) creates novel, naturalistic virtual 3-D objects called 'digital embryos' by simulating the biological process of embryogenesis14. Virtual phylogenesis (VP) creates novel, naturalistic object categories by simulating the evolutionary process of natural selection9,12,13. Objects and object categories created by these simulations can be further manipulated by various morphing methods to generate systematic variations of shape characteristics15,16. The VP and morphing methods can also be applied, in principle, to novel virtual objects other than digital embryos, or to virtual versions of real-world objects9,13. Virtual objects created in this fashion can be rendered as visual images using a conventional graphical toolkit, with desired manipulations of surface texture, illumination, size, viewpoint and background. The virtual objects can also be 'printed' as haptic objects using a conventional 3-D prototyper.
We also describe some implementations of these computational algorithms to help illustrate the potential utility of the algorithms. It is important to distinguish the algorithms from their implementations. The implementations are demonstrations offered solely as a 'proof of principle' of the underlying algorithms. It is important to note that, in general, an implementation of a computational algorithm often has limitations that the algorithm itself does not have.
Together, these methods represent a set of powerful and flexible tools for studying object recognition and perceptual learning by biological and computational systems alike. With appropriate extensions, these methods may also prove useful in the study of morphogenesis and phylogenesis.

We describe a novel methodology for creating naturalistic 3-D objects and object categories with precisely defined feature variations. We use simulations of the biological processes of morphogenesis and phylogenesis to create novel, naturalistic virtual 3-D objects and object categories that can then be rendered as visual images or haptic objects.

创建对象和对象类别学习的认知与知觉学习

In order to quantitatively study object perception, be it perception by biological systems or by machines, one needs to create objects and object ...

科研

神经科学

The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different versions of the paradigm, spatial language use and memory for object location are tested under different, experimentally manipulated conditions. This allows us to tease apart proposed models explaining the influence of object knowledge on spatial language (e.g., spatial demonstratives), and spatial memory, as well as understanding the parameters that affect demonstrative choice and spatial memory more broadly. Key to the development of the method was the need to collect data on language use (e.g., spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that&#34;) and spatial memory data under strictly controlled conditions, while retaining a degree of ecological validity. The language version (section 3.1) of the memory game tests how conditions affect language use. Participants refer verbally to objects placed at different locations (e.g., using spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that red circle&#34;). Different parameters can be experimentally manipulated: the distance from the participant, the position of a conspecific, and for example whether the participant owns, knows, or sees the object while referring to it. The same parameters can be manipulated in the memory version of the memory game (section 3.2). This version tests the effects of the different conditions on object-location memory. Following object placement, participants get 10 seconds to memorize the object&#39;s location. After the object and location cues are removed, participants verbally direct the experimenter to move a stick to indicate where the object was. The difference between the memorized and the actual location shows the direction and strength of the memory error, allowing comparisons between the influences of the respective parameters.

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

We present a protocol to explore the relationship between spatial language production, spatial memory, and object knowledge. The procedure allows experimental manipulation of, and control over, conditions of object knowledge, language at instruction, and physical location, thus teasing apart cognitive and linguistic models describing interactions between these variables.

(空间) 记忆游戏: 测试空间语言、对象知识和空间认知的关系

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different ...

行为学

A View of Their Own: Capturing the Egocentric View of Infants and Toddlers with Head-Mounted Cameras

Infants and toddlers view the world, at a basic sensory level, in a fundamentally different way from their parents. This is largely due to biological constraints: infants possess different body proportions than their parents and the ability to control their own head movements is less developed. Such constraints limit the visual input available. This protocol aims to provide guiding principles for researchers using head-mounted cameras to understand the changing visual input experienced by the developing infant. Successful use of this protocol will allow researchers to design and execute studies of the developing child&#39;s visual environment set in the home or laboratory. From this method, researchers can compile an aggregate view of all the possible items in a child&#39;s field of view. This method does not directly measure exactly what the child is looking at. By combining this approach with machine learning, computer vision algorithms, and hand-coding, researchers can produce a high-density dataset to illustrate the changing visual ecology of the developing infant.

Infants and toddlers view the world in a fundamentally different way from their parents. Head-mounted cameras provide a tractable mechanism to understand the infant visual environment. This protocol provides guiding principles for experiments in the home or laboratory to capture the egocentric view of toddlers and infants.

自己的观点: 用头摄像头捕捉婴幼儿的自我中心观

Infants and toddlers view the world, at a basic sensory level, in a fundamentally different way from their parents. This is largely due to biological ...

Defining the Role Of Language in Infants' Object Categorization with Eye-tracking Paradigms

Assessing infant category learning is a challenging but vital aspect of studying infant cognition. By employing a familiarization-test paradigm, we straightforwardly measure infants&#8217; success in learning a novel category while relying only on their looking behavior. Moreover, the paradigm can directly measure the impact of different auditory signals on the infant categorization across a range of ages. For instance, we assessed how 2-year-olds learn categories in a variety of labeling environments: in our task, 2-year-olds successfully learned categories when all exemplars were labeled&#160;or the first two exemplars were labeled, but they failed to categorize when no exemplars were labeled or only the final two exemplars were labeled. To determine infants&#8217; success in such tasks, researchers can examine both the overall preference displayed by infants in each condition and infants&#8217; pattern of looking over the course of the test phase, using an eye-tracker to provide fine-grained time-course data. Thus, we present a powerful paradigm for identifying the role of language, or any auditory signal, in infants&#8217; object category learning.

Here we present a protocol for familiarization-test paradigms which provide a direct test of infant categorization and help to define the role of language in early category learning.

用眼动跟踪范式界定语言在婴儿对象分类中的作用

Assessing infant category learning is a challenging but vital aspect of studying infant cognition. By employing a familiarization-test paradigm, we ...

Exploring Infant Sensitivity to Visual Language using Eye Tracking and the Preferential Looking Paradigm

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world around them. Eye tracking is a safe and non-invasive way to collect gaze data from infants, and the preferential looking paradigm is simple to design and only requires the infant to be attending to the screen. By simultaneously showing two visual stimuli that differ in one dimension, we can assess whether infants show different looking behavior for either stimulus, thus demonstrating sensitivity to that difference. The challenges in such experimental approaches are that experiments must be kept brief (no more than 10 min) and be carefully controlled such that the two stimuli differ in only one way. The interpretation of null results must also be carefully considered. In this paper, we illustrate a successful example of an infant eye tracking study with a preferential looking paradigm to discover that 6-month-olds are sensitive to linguistic cues in a signed language despite having no prior exposure to signed language, suggesting that infants possess intrinsic or innate sensitivities to these cues.

Eye tracking studies using a preferential looking paradigm can be used to study infants&#39;&#160;emerging understanding of, and attention to, their external visual world.

利用眼动追踪和偏好外观范式探索婴儿对视觉语言的敏感度

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world ...

Numerical Cognition: More or Less

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
One of the goals of the modern education system is to teach children mathematical literacy. They are taught to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, and this base knowledge is used to support learning about geometry, algebra, calculus, physics, and statistics. School-aged children usually acquire these skills in formal educational settings, but the foundation of mathematical understanding is developed much earlier in life.
As infants, humans begin to form the rough representations that allow them to make judgments about number, and perhaps the first numerical concept that humans develop is the idea of less versus more. However, probing these concepts can be challenging, because even if babies have some understanding of number, they have very few ways of showing off what they know. What they can do is crawl, eat, cry, and sleep. Thus, researchers developed a task using this limited set of responses to investigate whether babies can mentally represent number.
This experiment demonstrates how researchers can creatively use food to study concepts of numerical cognition in infants using the method by Feigenson, Carey, and Hauser.1

Investigating Numerical Cognition More/Less in Infants

数值的认知: 更多或更少

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
One of the goals of the modern education system is to teach ...

教育

JoVE Science Education

心理学

发展心理学

Mutual Exclusivity: How Children Learn the Meanings of Words

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
Humans are different from other animals in many ways, but perhaps the most important differentiating factor is their ability to use language. Other animals can communicate and even understand and use language in limited ways, but trying to teach human language to a chimp or a dog takes a great deal of time and effort. In contrast, young humans acquire their native language easily, and they learn linguistic rules without explicit instruction, which is an accomplishment that even the smartest animals cannot match.&#160;
One advantage young humans have over animals is that the human brain is especially adapted to learn new words. With only a few exposures, young children can learn new words and remember them. Perhaps more impressively, children can use what they already know to guide their future learning. For example, children treat objects as if they have only one label. So, if a child has learned the word hammer, they won&#8217;t assume an unfamiliar tool has the same name. This is the principle of mutual exclusivity.1-2
This video demonstrates children&#8217;s ability to use mutual exclusivity to match words to objects in their environment.

互斥: 儿童如何学习的单词的意思

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
Humans are different from other animals in many ways, but ...

How Children Solve Problems Using Causal Reasoning

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
Imagine a young child hears an adult say, &#8220;I want to watch the news,&#8221; then watches the adult press a button on the remote control. A moment later, the television screen turns on. The next day, the child wants to turn on the television screen to watch cartoons. How does the child know what to do? Is it enough to say, &#8220;I want to watch cartoons,&#8221; or is pushing the button on the remote control necessary, too? Solving this problem requires children to use the information they observed (i.e., the adult&#8217;s behaviors) to come up with a solution. In their daily lives, children encounter many situations where they need to decode cause-and-effect from complex or ambiguous observations in order to accomplish a goal.
In order to examine children&#8217;s capacity for causal reasoning, psychologists set up tasks using causal scenarios to observe how children draw conclusions and test new hypotheses about the relationships between different types of objects. In these tasks, children are shown interactions involving individual objects or sets of objects. Then, they are asked to identify and use the links between the causes and the effects to solve a problem.
This video demonstrates how to measure children&#8217;s causal reasoning about novel objects based on the methods developed by Gopnik and Sobel1 and Gopnik, Sobel, Schulz, and Glymour.2

儿童如何解决使用因果推理的问题

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
Imagine a young child hears an adult say, &#8220;I want to ...

Categories and Inductive Inferences

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
It might be possible for the human brain to keep track of each individual person, place, or thing encountered, but that would be a very inefficient use of time and cognitive resources. Instead, humans develop categories. Categories are mental representations of real things that can be used for a variety of purposes. For example, individuals can use the perceptual features of animals to place them into a given category. So, upon seeing a furry, four-legged, tail-wagging, barking animal, a person can determine that it is a dog. This is one of many examples where people use perceptual similarity to fit new experiences into their existing mental representations.
However, category membership is much more than skin deep, especially for representations of animals. Frank Keil demonstrated this by using a simple, yet powerful technique that focused on the differences between natural kinds and artifacts. Natural kinds include animals and other living things, while artifacts consist largely of nonliving things, such as tables or gold bricks. In his study, Keil told children stories about natural kinds and artifacts that underwent transformations causing them to cross categorical boundaries. For example, he described a step-by-step process by which a raccoon was transformed into a creature that resembled a skunk in every way. At the end of the story, the raccoon was black with a white stripe, and it had implanted glands that made it smell like a skunk, too. He asked the children to determine whether the resulting animal was a raccoon or a skunk. He used a similar method to describe the transformation of a tire-an artifact-into a shoe. Children&#39;s responses revealed interesting developmental changes into how people think about artifacts and natural kinds.
This video demonstrates Frank Keil&#39;s transformation study.1

How Children Categorize Objects and Make Inductive Inferences

类别和归纳推理

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
It might be possible for the human brain to keep track of each ...

Piaget's Stage 1 of Cognitive Development

The sensorimotor stage, the initial phase of Jean Piaget&#39;s theory of cognitive development, spans the first two years of a child&#39;s life. During this period, infants actively engage with their surroundings, building cognitive awareness through direct interaction with the world. This interaction is primarily based on sensory perception and motor actions, allowing infants to gradually understand basic physical properties and predict how objects interact within their environment.
Exploration Through Sensory-Motor Coordination
Infants primarily explore objects using their senses, often mouthing them to discern their texture and edibility. As their motor skills develop, particularly their ability to grasp, infants experiment with objects by shaking, banging, or dropping them to observe cause-and-effect relationships, such as the sound produced when an object strikes a surface. This stage is characterized by gradually improving the ability to combine sensory input with motor responses, enhancing the infant&#39;s capacity to interact with their environment purposefully.
Development of Object Permanence
Piaget theorized that, early in the sensorimotor stage, infants lack object permanence &#8212; the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. Infants under five months generally assume that an object ceases to exist once it is out of sight. However, between five and eight months, they begin developing object permanence, considered a major cognitive milestone in infancy. Piaget investigated object permanence by presenting an infant with a toy and then hiding it under a blanket. He believed that if the infant grasped that the toy was still there, they would attempt to uncover it. Infants search for hidden objects, reflecting their emerging ability to mentally represent objects and recognize their continued existence beyond immediate visibility.
Stranger Anxiety and Schema Formation
Around the same time as object permanence develops, infants begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, a natural response of fear or discomfort when confronted with unfamiliar individuals. According to Piaget, this response arises because infants cannot yet assimilate the image of an unfamiliar person into an established mental schema, causing distress and prompting defensive reactions such as crying, clinging to caregivers, or averting their gaze. Stranger anxiety signifies the infant&#39;s growing cognitive differentiation between familiar and unfamiliar stimuli, a crucial aspect of early social development within the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget&#39;s first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage, which spans from birth to approximately two years.
During this stage, infants ...