Name: the (spatial) memory game: testing the relationship between spatial language, object knowledge, and spatial cognition
Uploaded: 2018-02-19T12:30:00.000+00:00
Duration: 5 min 15 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition at JoVE.com

各自的研究使用记忆游戏程序是由 AHRC (格兰特 112211) 资助的, ESRC (授予 no。RES-062-23-2752) 和欧洲联盟关于研究、技术开发和示范的第七框架方案 (赠款316748和 676063)。

这里所描述的所有方法都得到了东英吉利大学心理伦理学委员会的批准。
1. 准备
<ol><li>将实验作为记忆实验进行宣传;对于语言生产版本来说, 语言从未被提及为从属变量是很重要的。</li>
	<li>按照道德准则通知所有参加者, 并让他们签署一份同意书, 确认他们同意参加以下推定:<ol>
<li>假定参与者了解所提供的信息。</li>
		<li>假设参加者有机会提出关于实验的问题, 并让这些回答令人满意。</li>
		<li>假定参加者知道他们的参与是自愿的, 并且允许他们在任何时候退出, 而不给予任何理由, 而不影响他们的任何方式。</li>
		<li>假定参加者知道没有个人信息 (如姓名) 将在研究小组之外共享, 或者在研究报告的最终报表中发表。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>材料<ol>
<li>用单色桌布盖上标准高度表 (L = 325 厘米, W = 90 厘米), 以防止表上的任何标记成为参与者的空间标记。表的长度可能会随着要测试的距离的函数而变化。</li>
		<li>标记位置, 间隔等距在位置棍子, 放置沿中线从参加者 (坐在表的短的末端, 看见图 1)。将对象放在位置标记的近边缘, 以便在放置的对象的确切位置没有变化。 注意: 标记位置的数量和它们的距离可能会随测试参数的函数而变化。在视频中, 我们使用12个位置, 它们之间的距离为25厘米。</li>
		<li>打印不同颜色的形状, 并将它们放在塑料盘中 (直径6.5 厘米), 从而控制对象属性。其他对象可以使用, 取决于被测试的假说;例如, 在一个实验中, 操纵参与者或试验者拥有的所有权硬币 (参见图 5)。</li>
		<li>用窗帘遮住桌子周围的空间, 以消除房间里的任何距离提示。</li>
		<li>用窗帘覆盖表的长边之一 [请参见图 4]。在程序的记忆版本 (3.2 节) 中, 实验者是幕后主使, 而参与者表示他/他记得物体的位置。这样可以确保参与者看不到实验者, 防止任何非口头提示, 以反映参与者的反应是否准确。反过来, 实验者看不到表, 从而消除了移动指示棒的任何混淆。</li>
		<li>将测量磁带放在实验者一侧的窗帘上, 看不到参与者的视线, 以便记录记忆版本中被召回的位置 (3.2 节)。</li>
		<li>为了避免在参与者的指令中受到磁带测量的影响, 实验者只关注以恒定速度移动棍子。这样, 实验者在移动指示棒时没有准确的信息。当参与者指出指示棒的近边与对象的近端匹配时, 请使用测量磁带来记下对象的召回位置。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>与会者<ol>
<li>确保参与者是受测试语言的母语者, 并且 (最好) 不要说其他母语。(当然, 记忆游戏可以用于双语研究/测试其他人群, 如果需要的话)。</li>
		<li>确保参加者有至少40的深度知觉 (弧秒), 可以用深度知觉测试 (e.g) 测量, Randot 立体测试; 见材料表)。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. 程序
注意: 视频中描述的设置的一些细节与原稿略有不同。例如, 位置棒看起来有点离中心 (特别是当翻过来), 实验者的位置旁边的参与者, 和照明条件 (造成阴影), 调整了 videographic 的原因。在测试过程中应避免这种情况, 以避免混淆视觉提示。复制时, 请按照纸张中的详细信息进行。
<ol><li>座椅的参与者尽可能接近表的短边 (但实际上没有触摸它)。</li>
	<li>指导参与者在整个实验中尽量保持自己的位置。</li>
	<li>告诉参与者在实验中将使用哪些对象和哪些位置。</li>
	<li>使用6种不同的物体和地点, 向参与者介绍六项实践试验, 以便注意和解释程序的任何不确定性。</li>
	<li>指导参加者在指令成绩单后面 (补充文件)。</li>
	<li>将过程调整到特定的测试需求。例如, 可以操作不同的参数, 或者可以使用较少的试验来保持特定的时间范围 (参见3.3 节)。</li>
	<li>在任务结束时, 向参与者询问他们对实验的看法, 并 specicially 他们认为实验测试的内容。对于需要从分析中排除参与者的语言版本来说, 这一点尤其重要, 因为他们报告说他们的示范选择正在测试中。</li>
</ol>3. 变型
<ol><li>语言版本 注意: 内存游戏的语言版本评估空间语言如何用于智力空间情况。<ol>
<li>首先指导参与者, 他们正在参加一个实验, 测试语言对空间记忆的影响 (使参与者不认识到他们的演示用法正在被测量)。告诉参与者, 实验是测试语言对内存的影响, 为对象的位置, 他们正在参与 ' 语言条件 ' (与其他人-没有实际测试-在 ' 无语言 ' 条件)。指示参与者使用三个单词: [演示]、[对象的颜色]、[对象的形状] (例如、此/该黑色十字), 以便使其尽可能类似于所有参与者。</li>
		<li>在每次试验中, 实验者将指示对象的位置 (例如, "我/您将 [对象] 放在 [位置] 上")。代理 (who 位置) 条件是实验控制的参数之一。</li>
		<li>演示一个示例试验, 其中实验者放置对象并显示试验的样子, 例如: "我将 [对象] 放在 [位置] 上。</li>
		<li>创建多个试验列表, 随机试验顺序, 同时确保没有对象或位置在连续两次试验中使用。这就防止了审判秩序的影响和从审判到审判的结转效果。</li>
		<li>对象放置后, 当实验者和参与者都坐在一起时, 让参与者使用肢体语言 (只指向对象, 但不能触摸它) 和语言来命名对象。</li>
		<li>指示参与者命名对象, 只使用三个字: [演示], [对象颜色], [对象名] (例如, "这个蓝色的心脏")。 注意: 参与者不命名该位置。参与者被告知, 他们必须只使用三个单词, 这样 "语言条件" 参与者都使用相同数量的语言来潜在地影响内存。</li>
		<li>作为实验者, 记录参与者用来引用对象的指示词。(从 partcipant 的角度来看, 实验者似乎正在标记已完成的试验。</li>
		<li>在参与者命名对象后, 移除该对象并继续下一次试用的指令。</li>
		<li>在实验的语言版本中保持 "记忆游戏" 的封面, 让参与者回忆起四对象的最新位置, 在六或更多不同的时间, 在整个试验中提出 (因此至少有24个记忆试验);这可以作为试验总数的函数来改变。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>内存版本 注意: 内存版本评估操作条件 (例如, 所有权, 语言, 参见3.3 节), 影响对象位置的内存。<ol>
<li>指示参与者在每次试用开始时宣读一张指令卡, 指示对象的放置。如果需要, 指令卡允许对语言条件进行操作。</li>
		<li>在对象放置过程中, 确保参与者闭上眼睛。下面的对象放置, 控制内存编码时间, 并确保参与者得到完全10秒的编码对象位置内存 (查看对象)。</li>
		<li>在10秒的内存编码后, 请指导参与者闭上眼睛, 将定位杆翻转, 以便参与者在内存撤回过程中无法看到位置 [请参见图 4]。</li>
		<li>请确保实验者和参与者在召回过程中都处于各自的位置 (请参见图 1)。在这个设置, 第二个实验者将移动指示杆, 从参与者的视线。</li>
		<li>安置征兆棍子在不同的距离从实际地点 (抵消是更加接近的由或进一步从参加者), 因此参与者必须指示征兆棍子的运动到达实际地点。</li>
		<li>为防止在前10项试验中, 将指示杆放置成为参与者的锚杆, 请添加3填充试验。在这些填料试验中, 将指示棒放置在更极端的距离 (例如, 20 厘米) 的实际位置。这些填料试验不用于分析。</li>
		<li>指示参与者口头指示指示杆是否需要 "进一步" 或 "靠近" 以匹配被召回的对象位置。</li>
		<li>当参与者对指示棒的位置感到满意时, 请指示他们说 "停止"。</li>
		<li>使用表格侧面的测量磁带记下被召回的位置。</li>
		<li>如果参与者记忆对象从实际位置超过10厘米, 则在实验结束时重复试用。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>变量在任务 注意: 这些任务的变体可以在语言版本 (3.1 节) 和内存版本 (第3.2 节) 中使用。<ol>
<li>要操作代理, 请使用指示实验者或参与者是否放置对象的说明。</li>
		<li>要操纵所有权, 请向参与者提供硬币 (e. g) 作为参与付款的一部分。通过使用参与者的硬币和实验者的硬币 , 所有权变量纵。</li>
		<li>使用不同的对象颜色和窗体来操作熟悉的 (例如, 熟悉的: 红色圆圈; 对于不熟悉的: 绿色 nonagon)。</li>
		<li>在编码过程中覆盖对象以操作可见性。金属盖为无能见度和无接触条件, 玻璃罩为可见性但不接触条件, 或没有遮盖的能见度和可能性接触条件。有关这些操作的更多信息, 可以在考文垂et . 中找到。(2014)。</li>
		<li>要在内存版本中对编码操作语言, 请使用操作语言的指令卡 (例如, 参与者读取指令卡, 如 "在 [位置] 上放置此/该/ [对象]")。指令卡印在层压卡上, 卡片大小。将这些卡放在卡片鞋中, 放在对象表上, 以确保参与者的方便访问。</li>
		<li>当参与者不记得试用结束时在指令卡上使用的演示时, 请重复试用。要求参加者在每次试验结束时记得在指令卡上使用的演示 (以确保参与者记住审讯的具体语言条件)。为了保证参与者不认识到学习是关于指示词的, 把这一演示召回任务作为认知负荷任务, 使任务更加困难。</li>
		<li>要操作同种的位置, 请让同种在参与者旁边或在表的另一侧进行定位。这样, 参与者和实验者的领地就可以共享或定位在相反的地方。这种操作是基于语言学理论, 建议某些语言 (g., 日语) 要求在对象接近同种时采取透视。当参与者和实验者坐在另一边时, 位置可以按位置 (例如, 在参与者的接触范围内, 在实验者伸手可及的范围内) 除以参与者的距离 (在参与者的范围内)。和实验者, 中等远, 最远的距离)。使用这种操作, 第二个实验者需要在参与者的指示上移动指示杆, 以便第一个实验人员能够保持他/她的位置。</li>
	</ol></li>
</ol>4. 分析
<ol><li>语言版本 (第3.1 节)<ol>
<li>计算每个变量组合的演示使用百分比。</li>
		<li>使用混合方差分析数据 (例如, 距离、所有权、熟悉度、可见性、指令中的语言、同种的位置) 以及介于 (例如、性别) 变量1、13之间。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>内存版本 (第3.2 节):<ol>
<li>计算实际位置和被召回位置之间的差额的绝对值 (在 mm 中, 负值表示对象被召回为更接近), 然后对设计的每个单元格进行平均此差异。</li>
		<li>在混合方差分析中使用 (例如、距离、所有权、熟悉度、可见性、指令中的语言、同种的位置) 以及介于 (例如、性别) 变量13、14之间的数据。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>

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作者没有什么可透露的。

记忆游戏已被证明是探索语言、空间认知和客体知识之间关系的有效程序。所描述的过程可用于测试许多不同的参数。在3.3 节中, 我们提供了迄今为止测试的参数的概述-这并不意味着一个详尽的潜在参数列表。本出版物旨在为测试语言、空间认知和对象知识之间的关系提供一个结构, 但并不意味着限制概念复制。该过程中的任何步骤都可以根据复制目标的要求进行调整。
该方法可以很容易地适应测试其他类型的空间语言。例如, 可以在语言版本中引出空间 adpositions, 要求参与者使用空间 adpositions 来描述对象位置 (例如旁边的、前面的等), 而不是指示词。还可以用垂直平面替换该表, 以检查垂直坐标轴上的介词 (例如过、下、以上、下; 请参见考文垂和 Garrod3 , 以便更广泛地讨论 adpositions)。
实验控制与高生态有效性的结合, 结合前人研究方法的优势。实验室设置确保了高水平的实验控制 , 其中特定参数可以纵和对比。同时维护生态有效性。参与者一般不知道学习的真正目的, 自然地使用语言。记忆游戏封面意味着在汇报时, 很少有参与者报告语言测试的直觉。在内存游戏的语言版本 (3.1 节) 中, 参与者接受语言是 "编码" 操作的一部分。在内存游戏的内存版本 ( 3 . 2 节 ) , 当语言纵在编码参与者接受语言被用来增加认知负荷。
必须控制所使用对象的精确位置, 以便在所有条件下将对象放置在完全相同的位置。其他实验参数可能会改变, 以适应相关的研究问题。未来的研究, 利用这个记忆游戏, 可以集中在测试的关系, 空间认知, 对象知识, 语言的跨语言研究。

Use multilevel modelling (MLM) for analyses: An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/56495">The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition</a>. The Protocol&#160;was updated.
Section 4 of the Protocol was updated from:
4. Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Language version (section 3.1)
	<ol>
		<li>Calculate percentages of demonstrative use for each combination of variables.</li>
		<li>Analyze data with a mixed ANOVA, using within (e.g., distance, ownership, familiarity, visibility, language at instruction, position of a conspecific) and between (e.g., gender) variables1,13.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Memory version (section 3.2):
	<ol>
		<li>Calculate the absolute value of the difference between the actual location and the recalled location (in mm, negative values indicate the object was recalled to be closer) for all trials, then average this difference over each cell of the design.</li>
		<li>Analyze data in a mixed ANOVA, using within (e.g., distance, ownership, familiarity, visibility, language at instruction, position of a conspecific) and between (e.g., gender) variables13,14.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
to:
4. Analysis using Multilevel Modelling (MLM)
<ol>
	<li>Identify potential zero-values in individual cells of the design, as these may lead to statistical separation6,7</li>
	<li>Use the Satterthwaite approximation8,9 to calculate effective degrees of freedom in the MLM.</li>
	<li>Use a backwards stepwise procedure for interaction terms to eliminate non-significant, highest order interactions:
	<ol>
		<li>Retain all lower-order interactions if a related higher-order interaction is significant.</li>
		<li>Double check the changes in the model via the classification table, coefficients, and main effects with each iteration.</li>
		<li>Use the AIC to determine the efficiency of the model relative to the previous iteration10.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Repeat Step 3 until reaching a model including all main effects, all significant (higher order) interactions (if any), and related lower order interactions (whether significant or not).</li>
</ol>
Update: Please find more information of this updated analysis replacing Section 4 of this publication at&#160;doi: <a href="doi: https://osf.io/wnj2v/">https://osf.io/wnj2v/</a>

Use multilevel modelling (MLM) for analyses:&#160;An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/56495">The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition</a>. The Protocol&#160;was updated.

Erratum: The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

语言和非语言表示之间的关系是认知科学中的一个基本主题1,2,3,4。在探索这种关系时, 我们关注的是空间认知。记忆游戏程序使我们能够实验性地控制不同参数对空间语言、空间记忆和客体知识之间关系的影响, 同时还能保持一定程度的生态有效性。过去用来引出空间指示词或对它们的理解的方法范围从那些具有较高生态效度但实验控制低 (例如, 埃菲尔5 的观察工作, 或开发的启发式方法在马克斯. 普朗克学院领域指南6) 对那些具有高实验控制但生态效度低 (例如, 使用的内部参与设计利用图片7,8 指示词的一致性).内存游戏方法的开发不是为了替代这些方法, 而是作为一种互补的方法, 在单一范式中保留这些不同方法的长处。
该方法发展的关键是希望保持较高的实验有效性, 同时也确保参与者在 (实际) 三维空间中使用语言 naturalistically 而不知道他们的语言正在被测试。这里有几个重要的要点需要注意。首先, 在视觉和行动中, 围绕个人 (近) 空间和超个人 (远) 空间的大脑系统有相当好的图表, 并涉及在身体周围可到达的空间与无法到达的空间之间 (分级) 的区别9,10,11. 在过去的语言学研究中, 距离对指示词的影响, 这种距离区分的知觉基础往往没有得到充分考虑。在过去的一些研究中使用照片, 操纵距离, 在屏幕上的整个图像是在 peripersonal 空间, 可以说不是一个公平的测试距离对指示词的影响, 从基本的大脑系统的区别的动机。第二, 要求参与者出示指示词并告诉他们, 研究人员对所使用的指示词感兴趣, 这就打开了偏见的可能性, 参与者产生了自己关于指示词的理论, 因而不自然生产。因此, 记忆游戏使用封面故事来引出指示词, 而没有参与者意识到所选择的指示词是感兴趣的。事实上, 在进行汇报时, 我们发现参与者报告不知道研究的真正目的。此外, 当研究的目的被揭露时, 参与者经常描述他们是如何使用指示词的方式, 在任务中不需要符合他们自己的实际行为。
有两个基本版本的内存游戏, 探索语言使用 (从这里的 ' 语言版本 ') 和对象位置内存 (从这里的 ' 内存版本 '), 在这里, 我们可以操纵不同的参数 (见第 3.3)。在质疑研究结果的背景下, 探索认知对知觉的自上而下的影响12, 内存游戏旨在避免由火石和上学确定的陷阱, 如过于验证性的研究设计 (不同的模型是测试, 允许 disconfimation) 和需求和反应偏差 (封面故事确保参与者不知道研究的目的)。(有关内存游戏的两个版本的说明的记录, 请参见附件)。
在内存游戏的语言版本 (3.1 节) 中, 测试空间语言生产,我们使用内存作为封面故事, 这样就可以在没有参与者意识到其使用被测量的情况下指示词。参与者被告知, 他们正在参加一个实验, 研究语言对记忆的影响, 以此作为目标位置 (实验被标榜为记忆实验)。参加者坐在一张长桌上, 上面有许多颜色编码的位置, 它们的前面有不同的距离。在每次试验开始时, 实验者或参与者 (agent是一个潜在的实验控制参数) 将一个对象 (例如、蓝色心脏、黑色十字) 放置在其中一个位置。在试验之间, 从参与者的距离是不同的, 以及潜在兴趣的其他参数, 如所有权 (参与者是否拥有对象)、可见性、熟悉度、代理 (放置对象) 以及同种.对象放置后, 参与者指向对象 (但不要触摸它) 并命名它。参与者被指示使用三个词: 演示, 颜色, 对象名 (例如, 为英文版本: "这个/那红色圈子")。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig1.jpg"> 图 1。表设置和扬声器 (参与者) 和听话人 (实验者) 的位置概述。调整自考文垂等.1 <a href="//cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的更大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig2.jpg"> 图 2。参与者读取指令卡, 然后记忆对象位置, 最后指示实验者移动指示棒并将其与对象边缘14的位置对齐。<a href="//cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
在内存游戏的第二个版本 (3.2 节) 中, 我们测试对象位置的内存。在对象放置之后, 参与者将查看对象/位置10秒钟。10秒后, 对象和位置标记被移除, 参与者口头指示指示杆的移动 (请参见图 3, 指示棒放置在不同的距离, 或者距离实际位置更近或更远。), 以匹配的确切位置, 他们认为近边缘的对象是在。实验者移动征兆棍子在窗帘后面站立, 为了避免一个聪明的 Hans 作用 (即,使参加者不可能读任何准确性线索从实验者的面孔或身体语言)。被召回位置和实际对象位置之间的差异显示了各自条件影响的方向和强度 (请参见图 4)。
通过使用这些程序的多个系列实验, 我们发现空间语言和空间内存之间存在着密切的关系 [g., 请参见表 1]。已发现对象知识的距离和多个参数 (例如、所有权、可见性、熟悉度) 影响了指示词的使用 (这个/那个) 13.例如, 如果某个对象无法到达, 则更有可能表示该与此1、13相比较。如果放置的对象由参与者拥有, 则比放置的对象由其他人拥有时更有可能使用此。另外, 结果从记忆版本平行的结果从语言生产版本。在参与者更倾向于使用该引用对象的情况下, 与此相比, 参与者忘了对象在内存版本13中更远.此效果也扩展到了影响空间内存的指令中的语言: 如果对象被放置在 word 中而不是 此(例如), 如果参与者读取对象放置的指令: "放置该对象位于位置上), 参与者忘了对象在内存版本14中更远.更具体地说, 对象知识对空间语言和内存的影响 (例如, 放置在更远的对象描述使用指示而不是 )类似于空间语言有空间内存 (放置在中的对象比放置在此中的记错要远。这显示了空间认知和语言之间的密切关系。
在理论上, 这些方法被用来区分几种可能的模型, 预测空间语言对空间记忆的不同影响。例如, 期望模型13建议空间内存是预期位置和实际位置的串联。例如, 如果一个人拥有一个对象, 则预期该对象将比对象属于其他人 (因为大多数对象都是一个拥有的对象) 更接近。预期模型基于以前的结果1、13, 而跨实验的证据将此模型用于后续研究14中的其他模型。

<table><tbody><tr><td colspan="4">&lt;strong&gt;We chose these materials as they are easy to source or make&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Table</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 2&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 4&lt;/strong&gt;. Table size: 325cm X 120cm (l X h), normal height (can be adjusted to fit specific experimental needs)</td></tr><tr><td>Location stick</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 2&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 4&lt;/strong&gt;. Length: 325cm. Coloured stickers indicate the different locations (can be adjusted to fit specific experimental needs)</td></tr><tr><td>Indication stick</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 3&lt;/strong&gt;.</td></tr><tr><td>Objects</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See sheet: &#039;Objects&#039;. Printed shapes, inserted in plastic button badges (can be adjusted to fit specific experimental needs, e.g., use coins to manipulate ownership)</td></tr><tr><td>Badges</td><td>Amazon</td><td>B01CI7XZHW</td><td>Take off the pin and place printed objects inside the badge</td></tr><tr><td>Curtains</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 2&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 4&lt;/strong&gt;.&amp;nbsp; Dark curtains to block out any spatial cues from the room/wall, and prevent clever Hans-effects (can be adjusted to fit specific experimental needs)</td></tr><tr><td>Table cloth</td><td>N/a</td><td>N/a</td><td>See &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 2&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong class=&quot;xfig&quot;&gt;Figure 4&lt;/strong&gt;. To block out any spatial cues on the table, needs to be heavy and preferably non-crease material.</td></tr><tr><td>Randot Stereotest</td><td>Stereo Optical</td><td>n/a</td><td>http://www.stereooptical.com/shop/stereotests/randot-stereotest/</td></tr></tbody></table>

the (spatial) memory game: testing the relationship between spatial language, object knowledge, and spatial cognition

记忆游戏范式是探索语言、空间记忆和客体知识之间关系的一种行为过程。使用两个不同版本的范式, 在不同的实验操作条件下测试对象位置的空间语言使用和内存。这使我们可以区分出解释对象知识对空间语言 (例如、空间指示词) 和空间记忆的影响的建议模型, 以及理解影响指示性选择和空间的参数。内存更广泛。该方法发展的关键是需要收集有关语言使用情况的数据 (e. g. 空间指示词: "这个/那个"), 以及在严格控制条件下的空间记忆数据, 同时保持一定程度的生态有效性。内存游戏的语言版本 (3.1 节) 测试条件如何影响语言使用。参与者以口头的方法引用放置在不同位置的对象 (例如, 使用空间指示词:这个/那个红圆圈)。可以通过实验操作不同的参数: 从参与者的距离、同种的位置, 以及参与者在引用它时是否拥有、知道或看到对象。同样的参数可以在内存游戏的内存版本 (3.2 节) 中操作。此版本测试不同条件对对象位置内存的影响。在对象放置之后, 参与者有10秒的时间来记住对象的位置。在删除对象和位置提示后, 参与者口头指示实验者移动一根棍子以指示对象的位置。记忆和实际位置的区别显示了内存错误的方向和强度, 允许对各自参数的影响进行比较。

迄今10项实验的结果显示出一致的模式。演示使用受多个参数 (距离、代理、所有权、熟悉度、可见性、同种的位置) 的影响, 无论它们是用语言显式编码还是1、13、14 (请参见表 1)。
结果1建议空间指示词与周围和 extrapersonal 空间15的区域相关.这些离散的空间区域是灵活的, 可以通过工具和权重来扩展和收缩使用1,16。
考文垂et 。13实验表明, 对象位置的演示用法和内存是相关的-即, 当参与者倾向于在特定条件下 (在语言版本中) 在此上使用该时, 参与者会记住对象在相似的情况下进一步 (在记忆版本) (参见表 2)。这些语言效果是在距离效应旁边找到的 (在其中内存错误越大, 对象被放置在更远的位置), 以及对参与者距离的一般高估。来自 Gudde et的结果。14显示了在指令中与该一起放置的对象比放置在此中的对象记错 (同样的模式也与所有格(我/您的红色圆圈等) 一起被发现。
结果支持期望模型13 , 它建议对象位置的内存是对象的实际位置和预期位置的串联。对对象位置的期望可以通过一般对象知识 (例如关于所有权) 或用于引用对象的语言 (例如、空间指示词) 引起。期望模型与预测编码的理论17、18一致。对其他模型的预测已根据数据 (例如、同余模型、注意衰减模型) 进行了测试, 但对这些模型的预测与数据不匹配 (参见 Gudde et 。14进行讨论)。
第二个含义是更多的语言性质。考文垂et 。13测试的参数是用某些语言 (而不是英文) 显式编码的。这些参数被发现影响英语的演示使用和记忆的对象位置在英语的参与者尽管如此。这一事实可能表明, 演示系统依赖于可能驻留在语言之外的通用参数集 (考虑到空间内存受同一组参数的影响)。然而, 记忆游戏只用几种语言进行了测试, 直到目前为止。在测试更多的语言之前, 提出普遍性要求是为时过早的。因此, 需要在更广泛的语言范围内进行更多的实验测试。
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig3.jpg"> 图 3。指示杆13。
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig4.jpg"> 图 4。过程从左向右: 第一个参与者看到位置棒上的位置。在10秒的内存编码后, 这些位置被带走, 参与者会显示一个指示棒。当参与者口头指示指示杆的位置时, 实验者使用测量磁带记录实际被召回的位置, 这对参与者来说是不可见的。<a href="//cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig5.jpg"> 图 5。6个对象的示例。<a href="//cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56495/56495fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图的较大版本.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody>
<tr>
<td>实验</td>
			<td>条件</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>地区1</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>地区2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>地区3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(25-75 厘米)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(100-150 厘米)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>175-225 厘米)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>体育.</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>体育.</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>体育.</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>所有权</td>
			<td>与会者放置</td>
			<td>参与者的硬币</td>
			<td>68.00</td>
			<td>6.52</td>
			<td>48.00</td>
			<td>6.69</td>
			<td>18.67</td>
			<td>5.80</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>实验者的硬币</td>
			<td>62.67</td>
			<td>8.01</td>
			<td>28.00</td>
			<td>6.85</td>
			<td>13.33</td>
			<td>5.77</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td>实验者放置</td>
			<td>参与者的硬币</td>
			<td>64.00</td>
			<td>7.68</td>
			<td>29.33</td>
			<td>6.75</td>
			<td>17.33</td>
			<td>5.81</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>实验者的硬币</td>
			<td>56.00</td>
			<td>7.87</td>
			<td>24.00</td>
			<td>5.62</td>
			<td>9.33</td>
			<td>4.52</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>能见度</td>
			<td>金属 (闭塞)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>41.18</td>
			<td>7.84</td>
			<td>15.69</td>
			<td>7.07</td>
			<td>3.92</td>
			<td>2.68</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td>玻璃 (可见但不可触摸)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>50.98</td>
			<td>8.14</td>
			<td>27.45</td>
			<td>9.58</td>
			<td>5.88</td>
			<td>4.27</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td>无盖 (可见和可触摸)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>60.78</td>
			<td>7.69</td>
			<td>21.57</td>
			<td>6.35</td>
			<td>9.80</td>
			<td>4.75</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td>熟悉</td>
			<td>熟悉的形状</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>50.76</td>
			<td>6.53</td>
			<td>39.39</td>
			<td>6.06</td>
			<td>31.82</td>
			<td>5.90</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
			<td>不熟悉的形状</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>33.33</td>
			<td>6.39</td>
			<td>28.03</td>
			<td>5.94</td>
			<td>33.33</td>
			<td>6.30</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>表 1."此" 响应在三区域 (考文垂et al中的每个条件中的百分比.13)
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">实验</td>
			<td colspan="2">条件</td>
			<td>25厘米</td>
			<td>37.5 厘米</td>
			<td>50厘米</td>
			<td>62.5 厘米</td>
			<td>75厘米</td>
			<td>87.5 厘米</td>
			<td>100厘米</td>
			<td>112.5 厘米</td>
			<td>125厘米</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
			<td>意思</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
			<td>sem)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">所有权</td>
			<td colspan="2">参与者的硬币</td>
			<td>0.42</td>
			<td>0.36</td>
			<td>0.76</td>
			<td>0.69</td>
			<td>1.68</td>
			<td>1.50</td>
			<td>1.89</td>
			<td>2.48</td>
			<td>3.38</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.54)</td>
			<td>(0.45)</td>
			<td>(0.58)</td>
			<td>(0.6)</td>
			<td>(0.49)</td>
			<td>(0.7)</td>
			<td>(0.69)</td>
			<td>(0.72)</td>
			<td>(1.15)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2">实验者的硬币</td>
			<td>0.35</td>
			<td>0.94</td>
			<td>2.83</td>
			<td>2.60</td>
			<td>3.03</td>
			<td>3.91</td>
			<td>6.74</td>
			<td>5.11</td>
			<td>6.14</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.67)</td>
			<td>(0.48)</td>
			<td>(0.93)</td>
			<td>(0.88)</td>
			<td>(0.86)</td>
			<td>(0.97)</td>
			<td>(2.43)</td>
			<td>(0.95)</td>
			<td>(1.24)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">能见度</td>
			<td colspan="2">金属 (闭塞)</td>
			<td>2.91</td>
			<td>1.96</td>
			<td>2.79</td>
			<td>3.55</td>
			<td>2.17</td>
			<td>3.50</td>
			<td>3.38</td>
			<td>5.28</td>
			<td>6.39</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(2.09)</td>
			<td>(0.55)</td>
			<td>(0.7)</td>
			<td>(1.02)</td>
			<td>(1.07)</td>
			<td>(0.71)</td>
			<td>(0.76)</td>
			<td>(1.02)</td>
			<td>(1.08)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2">玻璃 (可见但不可触摸)</td>
			<td>1.37</td>
			<td>1.67</td>
			<td>1.03</td>
			<td>0.95</td>
			<td>0.43</td>
			<td>1.85</td>
			<td>1.97</td>
			<td>0.61</td>
			<td>3.45</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.42)</td>
			<td>(0.82)</td>
			<td>(1.13)</td>
			<td>(1.07)</td>
			<td>(0.99)</td>
			<td>(0.76)</td>
			<td>(0.99)</td>
			<td>(1.17)</td>
			<td>(1)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2">无盖 (可见和可触摸)</td>
			<td>-0.09</td>
			<td>-0.65</td>
			<td>0.52</td>
			<td>-0.08</td>
			<td>1.40</td>
			<td>1.78</td>
			<td>2.08</td>
			<td>1.35</td>
			<td>3.24</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.29)</td>
			<td>(1.02)</td>
			<td>(0.57)</td>
			<td>(0.73)</td>
			<td>(0.93)</td>
			<td>(0.52)</td>
			<td>(0.97)</td>
			<td>(0.91)</td>
			<td>(0.92)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">熟悉</td>
			<td colspan="2">熟悉的形状</td>
			<td>0.26</td>
			<td>-0.24</td>
			<td>-0.12</td>
			<td>0.03</td>
			<td>0.03</td>
			<td>0.97</td>
			<td>1.62</td>
			<td>0.95</td>
			<td>2.22</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.47)</td>
			<td>(0.48)</td>
			<td>(0.56)</td>
			<td>(0.8)</td>
			<td>(0.59)</td>
			<td>(1.09)</td>
			<td>(1.1)</td>
			<td>(1.26)</td>
			<td>(0.94)</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2">不熟悉的形状</td>
			<td>2.04</td>
			<td>2.42</td>
			<td>2.70</td>
			<td>3.26</td>
			<td>5.09</td>
			<td>4.88</td>
			<td>4.48</td>
			<td>4.59</td>
			<td>5.49</td>
		</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="2"></td>
			<td>(0.44)</td>
			<td>(0.76)</td>
			<td>(0.69)</td>
			<td>(0.83)</td>
			<td>(1)</td>
			<td>(0.87)</td>
			<td>(0.78)</td>
			<td>(0.67)</td>
			<td>(0.85)</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>表2。每个条件下的绝对内存错误 (cm) (考文垂et 。13)

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition at JoVE.com

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

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An animal&#39;s ability to perceive and learn about its environment plays a key role in many behavioral processes, including navigation, migration, dispersal and foraging. However, the understanding of the role of cognition in the development of navigation strategies and the mechanisms underlying these strategies is limited by the methodological difficulties involved in monitoring, manipulating the cognition of, and tracking wild animals. This study describes a protocol for addressing the role of cognition in navigation that combines pharmacological manipulation of behavior with high-precision radio telemetry. The approach uses scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, to manipulate cognitive spatial abilities. Treated animals are then monitored with high frequency and high spatial resolution via remote triangulation. This protocol was applied within a population of Eastern painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) that has inhabited seasonally ephemeral water sources for ~100 years, moving between far-off sources using precise (&#177; 3.5 m), complex (i.e., non-linear with high tortuosity that traverse multiple habitats), and predictable routes learned before 4 years of age. This study showed that the processes used by these turtles are consistent with spatial memory formation and recall. Together, these results are consistent with a role of spatial cognition in complex navigation and highlight the integration of ecological and pharmacological techniques in the study of cognition and navigation.

This paper describes a novel protocol that combines the pharmacological manipulation of memory and radio telemetry to document and quantify the role of cognition in navigation.

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科研

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This manuscript describes an approach to measure neural activity of humans while solving spatially focused engineering problems. The electroencephalogram methodology helps interpret beta brain wave measurements in terms of neural efficiency, with the aim of ultimately enabling comparisons of task performance both between problem types and between participants.

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行为学

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At birth, infants not only prefer listening to human vocalizations, but also have begun to link these vocalizations to cognition: For infants as young as three months of age, listening to human language supports object categorization, a core cognitive capacity. This precocious link is initially broad: At 3 and 4 months, vocalizations of both humans and nonhuman primates support categorization. But by 6 months, infants have narrowed the link: Only human vocalizations support object categorization. Here we ask what guides infants as they tune their initially broad link to a more precise one, engaged only by the vocalizations of our species. Across three studies, we use a novel exposure paradigm to examine the effects of experience. We document that merely exposing infants to nonhuman primate vocalizations enables infants to preserve the early-established link between this signal and categorization. In contrast, exposing infants to backward speech &#8212; a signal that fails to support categorization at any age &#8212; offers no such advantage. Our findings reveal the power of early experience as infants specify which signals, from an initially broad set, they will continue to link to cognition.

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The present article reviews an eye-tracking methodology for studies on language comprehension. To obtain reliable data, key steps of the protocol must be followed. Among these are the correct set-up of the eye tracker (e.g., ensuring good quality of the eye and head images) and accurate calibration.

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Assessing infant category learning is a challenging but vital aspect of studying infant cognition. By employing a familiarization-test paradigm, we straightforwardly measure infants&#8217; success in learning a novel category while relying only on their looking behavior. Moreover, the paradigm can directly measure the impact of different auditory signals on the infant categorization across a range of ages. For instance, we assessed how 2-year-olds learn categories in a variety of labeling environments: in our task, 2-year-olds successfully learned categories when all exemplars were labeled&#160;or the first two exemplars were labeled, but they failed to categorize when no exemplars were labeled or only the final two exemplars were labeled. To determine infants&#8217; success in such tasks, researchers can examine both the overall preference displayed by infants in each condition and infants&#8217; pattern of looking over the course of the test phase, using an eye-tracker to provide fine-grained time-course data. Thus, we present a powerful paradigm for identifying the role of language, or any auditory signal, in infants&#8217; object category learning.

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Unilateral spatial neglect (USN) is a syndrome characterized by inattention to or inaction in one side of space and affects between 23-46% of acute stroke survivors. The diagnosis and characterization of these symptoms in individual patients can be challenging and often requires skilled clinical staff. Virtual reality (VR) presents an opportunity to develop novel assessment tools for patients with USN.
We aimed to design and build a VR tool to detect and characterize subtle USN symptoms, and to test the tool on subjects treated with inhibitory repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of cortical regions associated with USN.
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We found significant differences in average head yaw between subjects stimulated at the STG and those stimulated at the SMG and marginally significant effects in the average visual axis.
VR technology is becoming more accessible, affordable, and robust, presenting an exciting opportunity to create useful and novel game-like tools. In conjunction with TMS, these tools could be used to study specific, isolated, artificial neurological deficits in healthy subjects, informing the creation of VR-based diagnostic tools for patients with deficits due to acquired brain injury. This study is the first to our knowledge in which artificially generated USN symptoms have been evaluated with a VR task.

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Spatial navigation is a complex function involving the integration and manipulation of multisensory information. Using different navigation tasks, many promising results have been achieved on the specific functions of various brain regions (e.g., hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and parahippocampal place area). Recently, it has been suggested that a non-aggregate network process involving multiple interacting brain regions may better characterize the neural basis of this complex function. This paper presents an integrative approach for constructing and analyzing the functionally-specific network for spatial navigation in the human brain. Briefly, this integrative approach consists of three major steps: 1) to identify brain regions important for spatial navigation (nodes definition); 2) to estimate functional connectivity between each pair of these regions and construct the connectivity matrix (network construction); 3) to investigate the topological properties (e.g., modularity and small worldness) of the resulting network (network analysis). The presented approach, from a network perspective, could help us better understand how our brain supports flexible navigation in complex and dynamic environments, and the revealed topological properties of the network can also provide important biomarkers for guiding early identification and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in clinical practice.

This paper presents an integrative approach to investigating the functional network for spatial navigation in the human brain. This approach incorporates a large-scale neuroimaging meta-analytic database, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging, and network modeling and graph-theoretical techniques.

模拟人脑空间导航的功能网络

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(空间) 记忆游戏: 测试空间语言、对象知识和空间认知的关系

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