This work was supported by grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) to H-JZ. TMBW is a recipient of an Australia Postgraduate Award from the Australian Government and the Ann Henderson Top-Up Scholarship from Australian Rotary Health in partner with Rotary of Templestowe and Dine for a Cure.

All animal experiments were approved by the University of Melbourne Animal Ethics Committee.
Note: The sequence, construction and generation protocol for the adenoviral vectors pAd-CMV-Td-Tom, pAd-CMV-GFP and pAd-CAGA12-Luc/Td-Tom have been previously described11,12,13. All vectors are commercially available.
1. Virus Titer Determination ...

<ol>
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We have developed a technique to allow for real-time imaging of TGF-&#946;/Smad3 signaling in single live cells. Using this novel method, we have previously identified a sub-population of cells with dynamic TGF-&#946;/Smad3 transcriptional activity that was associated with enhanced invasion and migration8. This method improves on traditional assays for TGF-&#946; signaling, such as western blots of Smad3 phosphorylation and TGF-&#946; targeted gene expression, by capturing the heterogeneity of TGF...

Transforming Growth Factor &#946; (TGF-&#946;) is an essential cytokine implicated in human development that signals through a heterodimeric complex consisting of type II and type I receptors1. Binding to type II receptor results in the recruitment and phosphorylation of type I receptor, which in turn phosphorylates downstream Smad2/3 proteins2,3. These activated Smad2/3 proteins bind to Smad4, forming a complex that translocates into the nucleus and regulates gene transcription4. Under homeostatic conditions TGF-&#946;/Smad signaling is tightly regulated; however, in many diseases, the signaling pathway is deregulated and often overexpressed leading to progression of disease5,6,7. Recent studies have demonstrated that cellular response to TGF-&#946; is heterogenous and subpopulations of TGF-&#946;/Smad active cells are responsible for biological function in a time-dependent manner8,9. Common cellular analysis of TGF-&#946;/Smad signaling involves the use of fixed endpoint assays that provide only a snapshot of cellular activity and often quantitate the average TGF-&#946;/Smad effect10. These methods, however, may not accurately represent the molecular behaviors of TGF-&#946;/Smad signaling in the physiological state during disease progression. Image-based analysis of live cells capture the dynamics of cellular and biological processes with both a spatial and temporal understanding.
Our goal was to develop a sensitive high-throughput method for live cell imaging of TGF-&#946;/Smad signaling using adenovirus-based reagents. Here, we infected the human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 with an adenovirus expressing the Smad3 CAGA motif binding sequence and a luciferase (Luc) or Td-Tomato (Td-Tom) reporter gene. Adenoviral reporter systems provide a quick and cheap method for plasmid introduction that can result in a 100% infection rate in cancer cell lines. Adenoviral reporter systems have also been successfully applied to cell lines that are difficult to transfect with conventional plasmid11. In this protocol we will describe a reproducible and noninvasive process to achieve live cell imaging of the TGF&#946;/Smad signaling pathway both in vivo and in vitro.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>1881024</td>
			<td>Warm in 37 &#176;C waterbath before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Scientifix Life</td>
			<td>FBS500-S</td>
			<td>Heat inactivated before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant Human TGF-&#946;1</td>
			<td>PEPROTECH</td>
			<td>100-21</td>
			<td>Aliquot in DDW to make final concentration at 10 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoechst-33258</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>5117</td>
			<td>Dilute in to PBS to make final concentration at 1 &#956;L/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luciferase Reporter Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>197897</td>
			<td>Dilute 5x in PBS before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminometer</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>9100-002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phase contrast fluorescence microscopy</td>
			<td>OLYMPUS</td>
			<td>IX50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VivoGl Luciferin</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>P1041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IVIS Lumina III In Vivo Imaging System</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>CLS136334</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5% Trypsin-EDTA (10x)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>15400-054</td>
			<td>Diltue to 0.05% (1x) in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Culture Lysis 5x Reagent</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>E153A</td>
			<td>Dilute to 1x in DDW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Formalin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F5554-4L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK 293A</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>R70507</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDA-MB-231</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRM-HTB-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PRKDC-SCID</td>
			<td>Animal Resources Centre</td>
			<td>SCIDF6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrigel</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>354234</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Zoetis</td>
			<td>26675-46-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Chem-supply</td>
			<td>EA043-10L-P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refresh Night Time</td>
			<td>Allergan</td>
			<td>1750D</td>
			<td>Lubricating Eye Ointment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Composition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>NaH2PO4.2H2O (4 mM); NaHPO4 (16 mM); NaCl (0.12M)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS-DMEM&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5% heat inactivated FBS; 10 &#956;g/mL penicillin; 100 &#956;g/mL streptomycin</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live cell imaging of the tgf-	&beta;/smad3 signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo using an adenovirus reporter system

Transforming Growth Factor &#946; (TGF-&#946;) signaling regulates many important functions required for cellular homeostasis and is commonly found overexpressed in many diseases, including cancer. TGF-&#946; is strongly implicated in metastasis during late stage cancer progression, activating a subset of migratory and invasive tumor cells. Current methods for signaling pathway analysis focus on endpoint models, which often attempt to measure signaling post-hoc of the biological event and do not reflect the progressive nature of the disease. Here, we demonstrate a novel adenovirus reporter system specific for the TGF-&#946;/Smad3 signaling pathway that can detect transcriptional activation in live cells. Utilizing an Ad-CAGA12-Td-Tom reporter, we can achieve a 100% infection rate of MDA-MB-231 cells within 24 h in vitro. The use of a fluorescent reporter allows for imaging of live single cells in real-time with direct identification of transcriptionally active cells. Stimulation of infected cells with TGF-&#946; displays only a subset of cells that are transcriptionally active and involved in specific biological functions. This approach allows for high specificity and sensitivity at a single cell level to enhance understanding of biological functions related to TGF-&#946; signaling in vitro. Smad3 transcriptional activity can also be reported in vivo in real-time through the application of an Ad-CAGA12-Luc reporter. Ad-CAGA12-Luc can be measured in the same manner as traditional stably transfected luciferase cell lines. Smad3 transcriptional activity of cells implanted in vivo can be analyzed through conventional IVIS imaging and monitored live during tumor progression, providing unique insight into the dynamics of the TGF-&#946; signaling pathway. Our protocol describes an advantageous reporter delivery system allowing for quick high-throughput imaging of live cell signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. This method can be expanded to a range of image based assays and presents as a sensitive and reproducible approach for both basic biology and therapeutic development.

Live single cell imaging in vitro
To accurately assess the activation of TGF-&#946;/Smad signaling in single cells using adenovirus based reagents, it is important to first determine the optimal Multiplicity of Infection (MOI) for each cell line. The optimal MOI is determined when 100% of cells are positive for adenoviral infection with no present cytopathic or cytotoxic effects. To determine this, we used a constitutively...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	Î²/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo Using an Adenovirus Reporter System at JoVE.com

Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	&amp;beta;/Smad3 Signaling Pathway &lt;em&gt;In Vitro&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;In Vivo&lt;/em&gt; Using an Adenovirus Reporter System

Here, we present a protocol for live cell imaging of TGF-&#946;/Smad3 signaling activity using an adenovirus reporter system. This system tracks transcriptional activity in real-time and can be applied to both single cells in vitro and in live animalmodels.

Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	&beta;/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo Using an Adenovirus Reporter System

Transforming Growth Factor &#946; (TGF-&#946;) signaling regulates many important functions required for cellular homeostasis and is commonly found ...

This method can hep answer key questions in the cell signaling field by noninvasively tracking cell signaling in real time. The main advantage of this technique is that adenovirus systems provide a quick and easy method for cell signaling detection that can achieve a 100%infection rate in cancer cell lines. The implications of this technique extend toward therapeutic development for cancers and can be expanded to other signaling pathways.Though this method can provide insight into breast cancer models, it can also be applied to other cancer types, such as brain, bone, and lung. On the day of adenovirus infection, seed the wells of a 12-well plate with approximately 1.25 times 10 to the fifth MDA-MB-231 cells in 500 microliters of medium for a confluency of 35%Infect cells in all wells with 75 microliters of adenovirus-CMV-GFP and 7.5 microliters of adenovirus CAGA12-Td-Tomato to obtain a 2, 500 MOI which can achieve 100%infection positivity. Then add TGF-beta to the treatment well immediately after adenovirus infection.Incubate at 37 degrees Celsius with 10%carbon dioxide for 24 hours. The next day, image live cells with a phase-contrast fluorescence microscope. Then after fixing the cells and staining nuclei with Hoechst dye, image the TD-Tomato protein and Hoechst stain using a fluorescence microscope.After imaging all wells, calculate the percentage of GFP and Td-Tomato positive cells using ImageJ. For the wound healing assay, begin by seeding the wells of a six-well plate with approximately 4.5 times 10 to the fifth MDA-MB-231 cells in one milliliter of medium for 50%confluency on the day of infection. Infect the cells with 22.5 microliters of adenovirus CAGA12-Td-Tomato, then place the plate in the incubator at 37 degrees Celsius with 10%carbon dioxide for 24 hours.After 24 hours, use a P200 pipette tip to scratch two crossed lines on the cell layer of each well. Remove the medium from the wells and treat with TGF-beta as previously shown, then place the plate in the incubator at 37 degrees Celsius with 10%carbon dioxide for five minutes. After five minutes of incubation, take images of selected wound areas using 100X magnification on a phase-contrast microscope before returning the plate to the incubator.24 hours later, take phase-contrast images of the same areas to assess wound closure. After fixing the cells and staining nuclei, visualize the Td-Tomato signal in the wound area and non-wound area using 200X magnification on a fluorescence microscope. 48 hours before tumor implantation, seed approximately 2.5 times 10 to the sixth MDA-MB-231 cells into 10 175-square-centimeter flasks.After 24 hours in culture, add 300 microliters of adenovirus CAGA12-luciferase into each flask before returning the cells to the incubator for another 24 hours. On the day of implantation, remove the old media and wash the adenovirus-infected cells once with 20 milliliters of PBS. Add two milliliters of 0.05%Trypsin-EDTA into the flask and shake the flask slightly to allow Trypsin to cover all the flask surface.Incubate at 37 degrees Celsius for three minutes, then quench the Trypsin by adding eight milliliters of FBS-containing DMEM media into the flasks. Transfer all cell suspensions into a glass reagent bottle. Count the cell number using a hemocytometer.After this, transfer 4.8 times 10 to the seven cells into 250-milliliter centrifuge tubes and centrifuge the cells at 400 times g for five minutes at room temperature. Following the centrifugation, re-suspend the cells in 720 microliters of fresh medium and transfer the suspension to a five-milliliter tube. Then add medium containing 10%Matrigel to dilute the cell suspension to three times 10 to the sixth cells per 50 microliters.Transfer the cell suspension into a sterile five-milliliter tube and keep on ice until implantation. Weigh 12 SCID mice and randomly allocate mice equally between control and treatment groups. After anesthetizing the mouse, dispense a drop of lubricating eye ointment onto both eyes to avoid corneal damage, then fix the mouse to a heat pad in a sterile bio-cabinet and maintain anesthesia by placing the snout into a nosecone connected to the isoflurane.Confirm the success of anesthesia by the lack of reaction to a toe pinch. Reduce the isoflurane to a maintenance dose for the remainder of the implantation. Next, use a cotton swab dipped into 80%ethanol to clean the skin from each fourth nipple to the midline.Find the fourth mammary fat pad through palpation and squeeze the fat pad to further expose the tissue, then mix the cell suspension by pipetting up and down. Gently aspirate 50 microliters of cell mixture into a 27-gauge insulin syringe and inject into the mammary fat pad. Confirm a successful injection and gently release the fat pad.Place the mouse back into the home cage. After the mice have regained consciousness, return the cage to the holding room for three days before proceeding to IVIS imaging. Live MDA-MB-231 cells presented varied levels of Td-Tomato expression despite 100%infection as shown by GFP expression, which indicates heterogeneous activation of TGF-beta-dependent Smad3 transcription across cells.Analysis of fixed cells again showed 100%GFP expression while only around 26%of cells displayed detectable TGF-beta/Smad3 transcriptional activity 24 hours after TGF-beta stimulation without TGF-beta compared to 0%positivity treatment. In the wound healing assay, MDA-MB-231 cells infected with adenovirus CAGA12-Td-Tomato exhibited normal migration behavior and cells treated with TGF-beta showed enhanced wound closure. Notably, about 62%of cells in the wound area presented positive TGF-beta-dependent Smad3 transcriptional activity, which is significantly higher than observed in the non-wounded area after TGF-beta treatment.The adenovirus CAGA12-luciferase reagent was tested in a breast tumor orthotopic implantation animal model. Both the control and TGF-beta-inhibitor-treated groups demonstrated similar CAGA12-luciferase reporter activity before treatment. However, for the control group, the luciferase signal did not change after PBS treatment, whereas mice treated with the TGF-beta inhibitor showed around threefold signal reduction.Once mastered, this technique can be done in less than one hour if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that excessively high volumes of adenovirus can have cytotoxic and cytopathic effects which may affect the accuracy of your results. Following this procedure, this system can be expanded to analyze multiple signaling pathways simultaneously in order to answer additional questions related to cell signaling cross talk.After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of cancer cell signaling to explore tumor progression behavior in breast cancer models.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic probes to provide quantitative information on the chemical tumor microenvironment (TME), including pO2, pH, redox status, concentrations of interstitial inorganic phosphate (Pi), and intracellular glutathione (GSH). In particular, an application of a recently developed soluble multifunctional trityl probe provides unsurpassed opportunity for in vivo concurrent measurements of pH, pO2 and Pi in Extracellular space (HOPE probe). The measurements of three parameters using a single probe allow for their correlation analyses independent of probe distribution and time of the measurements.

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

Low-field (L-band, 1.2 GHz) electron paramagnetic resonance using soluble nitroxyl and trityl probes is demonstrated for assessment of physiologically important parameters in the tumor microenvironment in mouse models of breast cancer.

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic ...

Radionuclide-fluorescence Reporter Gene Imaging to Track Tumor Progression in Rodent Tumor Models

Metastasis is responsible for most cancer deaths. Despite extensive research, the mechanistic understanding of the complex processes governing metastasis remains incomplete. In vivo models are paramount for metastasis research, but require refinement. Tracking spontaneous metastasis by non-invasive in vivo imaging is now possible, but remains challenging as it requires long-time observation and high sensitivity. We describe a longitudinal combined radionuclide and fluorescence whole-body in vivo imaging approach for tracking tumor progression and spontaneous metastasis. This reporter gene methodology employs the sodium iodide symporter (NIS) fused to a fluorescent protein (FP). Cancer cells are engineered to stably express NIS-FP followed by selection based on fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Corresponding tumor models are established in mice. NIS-FP expressing cancer cells are tracked non-invasively in vivo at the whole-body level by positron emission tomography (PET) using the NIS radiotracer [18F]BF4-. PET is currently the most sensitive in vivo imaging technology available at this scale and enables reliable and absolute quantification. Current methods either rely on large cohorts of animals that are euthanized for metastasis assessment at varying time points, or rely on barely quantifiable 2D imaging. The advantages of the described method are: (i) highly sensitive non-invasive in vivo 3D PET imaging and quantification, (ii) automated PET tracer production, (iii) a significant reduction in required animal numbers due to repeat imaging options, (iv) the acquisition of paired data from subsequent imaging sessions providing better statistical data, and (v) the intrinsic option for ex vivo confirmation of cancer cells in tissues by fluorescence microscopy or cytometry. In this protocol, we describe all steps required for routine NIS-FP-afforded non-invasive in vivo cancer cell tracking using PET/CT and ex vivo confirmation of in vivo results. This protocol has applications beyond cancer research whenever in vivo localization, expansion and long-time monitoring of a cell population is of interest.

We describe a protocol for preclinical in vivo tracking of cancer metastasis. It is based on a radionuclide-fluorescence reporter combining the sodium iodide symporter, detected by non-invasive [18F]tetrafluoroborate-PET, and a fluorescent protein for streamlined ex vivo confirmation. The method is applicable for preclinical in vivo cell tracking beyond tumor biology.

Metastasis is responsible for most cancer deaths. Despite extensive research, the mechanistic understanding of the complex processes governing metastasis ...

Long-term Live-cell Imaging to Assess Cell Fate in Response to Paclitaxel

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over the past decade, new and innovative technologies have greatly enhanced the practicality of live-cell imaging. Cells can now be kept in focus and continuously imaged over several days while maintained under 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 cell culture conditions. Moreover, multiple fields of view representing different experimental conditions can be acquired simultaneously, thus providing high-throughput experimental data. Live-cell imaging provides a significant advantage over fixed-cell imaging by allowing for the direct visualization and temporal quantitation of dynamic cellular events. Live-cell imaging can also identify variation in the behavior of single cells that would otherwise have been missed using population-based assays. Here, we describe live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel. We demonstrate methods to visualize whether mitotically arrested cells die directly from mitosis or slip back into interphase. We also describe how the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI) system can be used to assess the fraction of interphase cells born from mitotic slippage that are capable of re-entering the cell cycle. Finally, we describe a live-cell imaging method to identify nuclear envelope rupture events.

Live-cell imaging provides a wealth of information on single cells or whole populations that is unattainable by fixed cell imaging alone. Here, live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel are described.

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over ...

Live-Cell Imaging Assays to Study Glioblastoma Brain Tumor Stem Cell Migration and Invasion

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor that is poorly controlled with the currently available treatment options. Key features of GBMs include rapid proliferation and pervasive invasion into the normal brain. Recurrence is thought to result from the presence of radio- and chemo-resistant brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) that invade away from the initial cancerous mass and, thus, evade surgical resection. Hence, therapies that target BTSCs and their invasive abilities may improve the otherwise poor prognosis of this disease. Our group and others have successfully established and characterized BTSC cultures from GBM patient samples. These BTSC cultures demonstrate fundamental cancer stem cell properties such as clonogenic self-renewal, multi-lineage differentiation, and tumor initiation in immune-deficient mice. In order to improve on the current therapeutic approaches for GBM, a better understanding of the mechanisms of BTSC migration and invasion is necessary. In GBM, the study of migration and invasion is restricted, in part, due to the limitations of existing techniques which do not fully account for the in vitro growth characteristics of BTSCs grown as neurospheres. Here, we describe rapid and quantitative live-cell imaging assays to study both the migration and invasion properties of BTSCs. The first method described is the BTSC migration assay which measures the migration toward a chemoattractant gradient. The second method described is the BTSC invasion assay which images and quantifies a cellular invasion from neurospheres into a matrix. The assays described here are used for the quantification of BTSC migration and invasion over time and under different treatment conditions.

Here, we describe live-cell imaging techniques to quantitatively measure the migration and invasion of glioblastoma brain tumor stem cells over time and under multiple treatment conditions.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor that is poorly controlled with the currently available treatment options. Key features of GBMs include ...

Monitoring Hippo Signaling Pathway Activity Using a Luciferase-based Large Tumor Suppressor (LATS) Biosensor

The Hippo signaling pathway is a conserved regulator of organ size and has important roles in the development and cancer biology. Due to technical challenges, it remains difficult to assess the activity of this signaling pathway and interpret it within a biological context. The existing literature on large tumor suppressor (LATS) relies on methods that are qualitative and cannot easily be scaled-up for screening. Recently, we have developed a bioluminescence-based biosensor to monitor the kinase activity of LATS-a core component of the Hippo kinase cascade. Here, we describe procedures for how this LATS biosensor (LATS-BS) can be used to characterize Hippo pathway regulators. First, we provide a detailed protocol for investigating the effect of an overexpressed protein candidate (e.g., VEGFR2) on LATS activity using the LATS-BS. Then, we show how the LATS-BS can be used for a small-scale kinase inhibitor screen. This protocol can feasibly be scaled-up to perform larger screens, which undoubtedly will identify novel regulators of the Hippo pathway.

Monitoring Hippo Signaling Pathway Activity Using a Luciferase-based Large Tumor Suppressor LATS Biosensor

Here we present a luciferase-based biosensor to quantify the kinase activity of large tumor suppressor (LATS)-a central kinase in the Hippo signaling pathway. This biosensor has diverse applications in basic and translational research aimed at investigating Hippo pathway regulators in vitro and in vivo.

The Hippo signaling pathway is a conserved regulator of organ size and has important roles in the development and cancer biology. Due to technical ...

A Simple Migration/Invasion Workflow Using an Automated Live-cell Imager

Cancer cell mobility is crucial for the initiation of metastasis. Therefore, investigation of the cell movement and invasive capacity is of great significance. Migration assays provide basic insight of cell movement at a 2D level, whereas invasion assays are more physiologically relevant, mimicking in vivo cancer cell dislodgment from the original site and invading through the extracellular matrix. The current protocol provides a single workflow for migration and invasion assays. Together with the integrated automated microscopic camera for real-time HD images and built-in analysis module, it gives researchers a time-efficient, simple and reproducible experimental option. This protocol also includes substitutions for the consumables and alternative analysis methods for users to choose from.

The current protocol describes an integrated method investigating cancer cell migration and invasion on a single platform in real-time, providing an easily reproducible and time-efficient option to study cell mobility and morphology.

Cancer cell mobility is crucial for the initiation of metastasis. Therefore, investigation of the cell movement and invasive capacity is of great ...

Characterize Disease-related Mutants of RAF Family Kinases by Using a Set of Practical and Feasible Methods

The rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) family kinases play a central role in cell biology and their dysfunction leads to cancers and developmental disorders. A characterization of disease-related RAF mutants will help us select appropriate therapeutic strategies for treating these diseases. Recent studies have shown that RAF family kinases have both catalytic and allosteric activities, which are tightly regulated by dimerization. Here, we constructed a set of practical and feasible methods to determine the catalytic and allosteric activities and the relative dimer affinity/stability of RAF family kinases and their mutants. Firstly, we amended the classical in vitro kinase assay by reducing the detergent concentration in buffers, utilizing a gentle quick wash procedure, and employing a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion to prevent RAF dimers from dissociating during purification. This enables us to measure the catalytic activity of constitutively active RAF mutants appropriately. Secondly, we developed a novel RAF co-activation assay to evaluate the allosteric activity of kinase-dead RAF mutants by using N-terminal truncated RAF proteins, eliminating the requirement of active Ras in current protocols and thereby achieving a higher sensitivity. Lastly, we generated a unique complementary split luciferase assay to quantitatively measure the relative dimer affinity/stability of various RAF mutants, which is more reliable and sensitive compared to the traditional co-immunoprecipitation assay. In summary, these methods have the following advantages: (1) user-friendly; (2) able to carry out effectively without advanced equipment; (3) cost-effective; (4) highly sensitive and reproducible.

In this article, we presented a set of practical and feasible methods for characterizing disease-related mutants of RAF family kinases, which include in vitro kinase assay, RAF co-activation assay, and complementary split luciferase assay.

The rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) family kinases play a central role in cell biology and their dysfunction leads to cancers and developmental ...

In Vitro Assay to Study Tumor-macrophage Interaction

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a malignant brain tumor with no cure, has up to a half the tumor mass TAMs. TAMs can be pro-tumoral or anti-tumoral, depending on the activation of specific genes in the cells. Genetic mutations in the tumors, through regulating cytokine expression, can affect recruitment of TAMs to the tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe a quantitative cell-based assay to assess macrophage recruitment by the conditioned medium from the tumor cells. This assay uses the human macrophage cell line MV-4-11 to study macrophage attraction by the conditioned medium from glioblastoma, allowing for high reproducibility and low variability. Data generated with this assay can contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the tumor and the tumor microenvironment. Similar assay can be used to assess interaction between the tumor cells and other immune cells, including T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.

This article represents a useful in vitro assay to evaluate the capability of conditioned medium from tumor cells to attract macrophages.

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a ...

In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 System

The use of primary normal epithelial cells makes it possible to reproducibly induce genomic alterations required for cellular transformation by introducing specific mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, using clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-based genome editing technology in mice. This technology allows us to accurately mimic the genetic changes that occur in human cancers using mice. By genetically transforming murine primary cells, we can better study cancer development, progression, treatment, and diagnosis. In this study, we used Cre-inducible Cas9 mouse tongue epithelial cells to enable genome editing using adeno-associated virus (AAV) in vitro. Specifically, by altering KRAS, p53, and APC in normal tongue epithelial cells, we generated a murine head and neck cancer (HNC) cell line in vitro,which is tumorigenic in syngeneic mice. The method presented here describes in detail how to generate HNC cell lines with specific genomic alterations and explains their suitability for predicting tumor progression in syngeneic mice. We envision that this promising method will be informative and useful to study tumor biology and therapy of HNC.

Development of murine models with specific genes mutated in head and neck cancer patients is required for understanding of neoplasia. Here, we present a protocol for in vitro transformation of primary murine tongue cells using an adeno-associated virus-Cas9 system to generate murine HNC cell lines with specific genomic alterations.

The use of primary normal epithelial cells makes it possible to reproducibly induce genomic alterations required for cellular transformation by ...

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

Tumorigenesis is a multi-step process in which cells acquire capabilities&#160;that allow their growth, survival, and dissemination under hostile conditions. Different tests seek to identify and quantify these hallmarks of cancerous cells; however, they often focus on a single aspect of cellular transformation and, in fact, multiple tests are required for their proper characterization. The purpose of this work is to provide researchers with a set of tools to assess cellular transformation in vitro from a broad perspective, thereby making it possible to draw sound conclusions.
A sustained proliferative signaling activation is the major feature of tumoral tissues and can be easily monitored under in vitro conditions by calculating the number of population doublings achieved over time. Besides, the growth of cells in 3D cultures allows their interaction with surrounding cells, resembling what occurs in vivo. This enables the evaluation of cellular aggregation and, together with immunofluorescent labeling of distinctive cellular markers, to obtain information on another relevant feature of tumoral transformation: the loss of proper organization. Another remarkable characteristic of transformed cells is their capacity to grow without attachment to other cells and to the extracellular matrix, which can be evaluated with the anchorage assay.
Detailed experimental procedures to evaluate cell growth rate, to perform immunofluorescent labeling of cell lineage markers in 3D cultures, and to test anchorage-independent cell growth in soft agar are provided. These methodologies are optimized for Breast Primary Epithelial Cells (BPEC) due to its relevance in breast cancer; however, procedures can be applied to other cell types after some adjustments.

This protocol provides experimental in vitro tools to evaluate the transformation of human mammary cells. Detailed steps to follow-up cell proliferation rate, anchorage-independent growth capacity, and distribution of cell lineages in 3D cultures with basement membrane matrix are described.