这项研究的部分原因是奈特校园本科生学者计划和菲尔和佩妮奈特基金会的慷慨资助。

此处详述的所有方法均按照IRB协议和批准（俄勒冈大学IRB协议编号10182017.017）进行。获得所有受试者的知情同意。
1. 伸展装置
<ol><li>将大型图形输入板平放在桌面上。</li>
	<li>使用可调节的 80-20 铝制框架将任务监视器平行放置在平板电脑上方 6-8 处，屏幕朝上（有关蓝图，请查看此处:https://github.com/greenhouselab/Reach_TMS 和补充图 1）。 注意:此设置允许参与者跨过平板电脑并获取任务监视器上显示的目标，同时遮挡其伸展手臂的视野。</li>
	<li>使用Kim等人3 中描述的设置作为参考。</li>
</ol>2. 机器接口
<ol><li>通过 USB 端口 将 平板电脑连接到计算机。通过HDMI端口 将 任务监视器连接到计算机。通过DB-9电缆 将 后面的TMS端口连接到计算机。</li>
	<li>通过PCI-6220卡DAQ 将 EMG系统连接到计算机。通过BNC电缆 将 光电二极管连接到EMG系统。</li>
</ol>3. 光电二极管传感器
<ol><li>将光电二极管传感器连接到 BNC 电缆。用胶带将光电二极管传感器固定在任务监视器的右上角，传感器面向屏幕，≤ 1 厘米远。 注意:这会将任务监视器上呈现的刺激的时序记录为独立输入通道中的模拟数据。</li>
</ol>4. 软件
<ol><li>下载适用于 MATLAB 2018 的 VETA 工具箱26 （https://github.com/greenhouselab/Veta），与用于数据收集的硬件接口。</li>
	<li>下载为控制实验参数和与平板电脑接口而开发的到达任务代码（https://github.com/greenhouselab/Reach_TMS）。</li>
</ol>5. 参与者筛选和知情同意
<ol><li>筛查受试者是否有 TMS 禁忌证。排除标准包括癫痫发作、头痛、脑外伤、昏厥、慢性应激或焦虑、睡眠问题和任何神经活性药物的个人或家族史。其他排除标准包括大脑或颅骨中的任何金属植入物，以及在测试前24小时内使用任何娱乐性药物或酒精。纳入标准包括右撇子和年龄在18至35岁之间。</li>
	<li>提供程序和相关风险的书面解释，澄清参与者可能提出的任何其他问题。</li>
	<li>获得参与者的知情同意。</li>
</ol>6. 科目设置
<ol><li>将拍摄对象放在面向平板电脑的舒适椅子上。确保膝盖弯曲至90°，腿在桌子下方。</li>
	<li>准备皮肤并放置肌电图电极。<ol><li>使用细粒砂纸轻轻擦拭右侧第一背骨间 （FDI）、桡腕伸肌和前三角肌部位的皮肤，以及颈部底部的 C4 突起，以检测 TMS 脉冲产生的电伪影。 注意:肌肉记录站点可以根据用户需求进行调整。</li>
		<li>每个电极部位用酒精制备垫擦拭每个磨损区域一次以进行清洁。</li>
		<li>在每个部位放置一个肌电图电极。确保电极垂直于肌肉纤维运行。将接地电极放在右肘的骨突出处。</li>
		<li>用医用胶带固定每个电极。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>检查肌电图记录的质量。使用 VETA 工具箱可视化所有肌电图迹线，并确保它们没有伪影。如果肌电图迹线有噪音，请确保接地正确放置，并且所有电极与皮肤正确接触。</li>
</ol>7. 经颅磁刺激
<ol><li>打开 TMS 机器。</li>
	<li>通过刺激左侧M1 找到 右侧FDI肌肉的TMS热点。<ol><li>将线圈横向放置~5厘米，在头部顶点前2厘米处放置，方向为中线~45°。</li>
		<li>每 4 秒施用一次 TMS 脉冲，同时在前-后和内侧侧以约 5 mm 的增量重新定位线圈。</li>
		<li>从 30% 的最大刺激器输出开始，以 2% 的增量逐渐增加 TMS 强度，直到观察到 MEP。</li>
		<li>一旦确定了最佳位置，在该位置上，MEP 可以以尽可能低的刺激器强度可靠地在大多数 （~75%） 脉冲上被引出，通过找到在 10 个脉冲中的 5 个脉冲上产生峰峰值幅度为 >50 μV 的 MEP 的强度水平来确定静息运动阈值 （RMT）。</li>
		<li>通过沿着线圈的周边在参与者的头上轻轻放置细条反光带来标记位置。通过手动握住线圈或使用支架支撑线圈来保持线圈定位。</li>
	</ol></li>
</ol>8. 到达任务设置
<ol><li>将魔术贴手套戴在参与者的右手上，以促进放松的力量握持姿势。</li>
	<li>将手写笔连接到手套上，并建议受试者在伸手运动之间保持手部放松。</li>
	<li>传达任务说明，如下所示: 将光标引导到屏幕底部的初始位置。您将在两个目标位置之一看到提示。当目标填充颜色时，尽可能快速准确地穿过目标。然后返回初始位置。指示初始位置、提示和目标的位置（图 1A）。</li>
	<li>指导参与者用手写笔尽可能快速准确地切开目标。关闭任务室中的灯，以遮挡参与者手臂运动的视野并提高任务监视器的可见性。</li>
</ol>9. 任务设计
<ol><li>在 Matlab 2018 中使用 Psychtoolbox 3.0 控制视觉刺激呈现（补充编码文件 1）。</li>
	<li>使用以下参数匹配当前数据:20 次练习试验;270次试验;4/5 的测试试验的 TMS;TMS 要么与预备提示开始（基线 TMS）重合，要么在命令性提示（延迟 TMS）之前 100 毫秒以相同的频率重合;总试验的1/10是捕获试验，其中没有出现命令性提示;起始位置是一个半径为 2 厘米的圆，位于工作区的底部中心;两个半径为 1 cm 的圆形目标位于距离起始位置 15 cm 处，距离中线 +45°和 -45°。</li>
	<li>按如下方式设置事件顺序和持续时间:准备提示为 900 毫秒，命令式提示为 900 毫秒。</li>
</ol>10. TMS管理
<ol><li>VETA工具箱同时管理TMS并记录肌电图 https://github.com/greenhouselab/Veta。</li>
	<li>使用VETA工具箱控制TMS脉冲的时间，以与所选的行为事件（即，准备提示的开始或目标开始前100毫秒）一致。</li>
	<li>以足够的频率提供 TMS，以确保有足够的 MEP 进行分析。 注意:如前所述，任务代码将在总试验的 4/5 上提供 TMS 脉冲，要么在准备提示开始时引出基线 MEP，要么在命令提示引发延迟 MEP 之前 100 毫秒。可以根据用户需要在代码中调整参数。没有TMS的试验可用于评估在没有TMS的情况下的行为表现。这对于确定 TMS 对性能的任何可能影响非常有用。</li>
</ol>

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所有作者声明不存在利益冲突

上面概述的方法提供了一种在达到行为的背景下研究运动准备的新方法。尽管到达代表了运动控制和学习研究中的流行模型任务，但需要精确评估与到达行为相关的CS动力学。TMS提供了一种非侵入性的，时间精确的方法来捕获到达过程中离散时间点的CS活动。这里描述的方法结合了两个独立的子领域 - TMS和触及 - 涉及同时记录运动学和电生理指标的单一范式。 
虽然所描述的方法有可能揭示在到达的背景下对行动控制的重要见解，但存在某些限制和考虑因素。最重要的是，MEP测量的可靠性取决于TMS给药前肌电图活动的稳定性，以及捕获的27个MEP的数量。在收集数据之前评估肌电图数据质量至关重要。为了获得足够的统计功效，建议每个任务条件至少进行 20 次 MEP 测量。此外，虽然MEP的变化代表了CS兴奋性的定量变化，但TMS的性质和由此产生的MEP产生了相当粗略的CS活动的总结指标，并且应谨慎解释它们与行为的因果关系15。此外，图形输入板要求手写笔与平板电脑表面保持接触，这限制了可以使用的伸展任务范围和握把孔径。 
尽管该特定协议存在局限性，但TMS和EMG的组合在达到以外的行为任务期间用于索引运动系统兴奋性已经得到很好的确立15。这种组合方法的优点包括即使在没有明显运动的情况下也能测量CS兴奋性动力学，以及在与任务无关的肌肉中。这种方法还提供了毫秒级的高时间精度。此外，此处描述的协议可以适用于通过列出的输入/输出设备 直接 与刺激演示计算机接口的任意数量的EMG设备。 
鉴于这些优势，该协议可以帮助弥合人类和动物研究之间的差距。对非人类灵长类动物的大量研究已经检查了在到达的背景下与到达和运动学习相关的电生理机制。使用TMS和EMG联合方法对人类的进一步研究可以帮助弥合非人类电生理学和人类行为发现。先前在伸手背景下对 MEP 的研究表明，当顶叶皮层、前运动皮层和顶叶 M1 回路在运动前受到刺激时，TMS 在伸展和抓握准备期间具有促进作用8，14。然而，在M1上的TMS后75至150 ms用脑电图测量的静息诱发电位的幅度在力场缓冲13后降低。CS的准备，适应和变化之间的微妙关系值得进一步研究。此外，通过在实验室中使用相同的工具和方法，复制将更容易实现，这将有助于研究结果的可解释性。
虽然这里的重点是M1的TMS，但一些研究已经利用双位点TMS来研究皮质区域（例如，顶叶皮层和M1）之间的相互作用。虽然其中许多研究是在休息期间进行的，但少数研究在到达计划和执行的背景下检查了皮质 - 皮质相互作用。双位点TMS显示，对后顶叶皮层的刺激促进了M1兴奋性，在听觉"去"提示后50毫秒和~100毫秒处启动准备好的对侧到达28。已经为双线圈TMS方法建立了其他方法，其中包括在目标导向的伸手抓取行为期间的应用29。这里描述的方案补充了这些以前的研究和方法，也可以很容易地适应双位点TMS研究。
示例任务代码由具有两个潜在目标的延迟响应任务组成。可以调整试验编号、靶标和光标特征、视觉反馈和 TMS 递送等参数，以解决各种研究问题。用这种方法记录的数据包括来自平板电脑的行为运动学和来自EMG的电生理测量。初步结果表明，TMS和行为测量显示出可靠的时机和对试验中到达方向变化的足够敏感性。这些方法和结果是未来研究使用这种方法通过TMS 到达 的神经机制的概念证明。

目标导向的到达是一种基本的运动行为，允许人类与外部环境互动并操纵外部环境。运动生理学、心理学和神经科学领域的研究产生了丰富而广泛的文献，其中包括各种方法论。早期的接触研究使用非人类灵长类动物的直接神经记录来研究单个神经元水平的神经活动1，2。最近的研究调查了使用行为范式来探索运动学习和控制的本质3，4，5。这种行为任务与功能性磁共振成像和脑电图相结合，可以测量人类到达时的全脑活动6，7。其他研究已应用在线TMS来调查到达准备和执行的各种特征8，9，10，11，12，13，14。然而，仍然需要一种开源和灵活的方法，将覆盖的行为评估与TMS相结合。虽然将TMS与行为协议相结合的效用已经非常成熟15，但在这里，我们专门研究了TMS在使用开源方法的背景下的应用。这是新颖的，因为使用这种方法组合发表文章的其他小组没有使他们的工具随时可用，因此禁止直接复制。这种开源方法促进了复制、数据共享和多中心研究的可能性。此外，如果其他人希望使用类似的工具追求新颖的研究问题，开源代码可以作为创新的发射台，因为它很容易适应。
TMS提供了一种在精确控制的时间点16探测电机系统的无创方法。当应用于初级运动皮层（M1）时，TMS可以在目标肌肉的肌电图中引起可测量的偏转。该电压波的振幅称为电机诱发电位（MEP），提供了皮质脊髓（CS）通路瞬时兴奋状态的指数 - 这是对CS通路17的所有兴奋性和抑制性影响的合成模拟。除了提供可靠的内在CS兴奋性受试者内测量外，TMS还可以与其他行为或运动学指标相结合，以时间精确的方式研究CS活动与行为之间的关系。许多研究已经利用TMS和肌电图（EMG）的组合来解决有关运动系统的各种问题，特别是因为这种方法的组合使得在各种行为条件下研究MEP成为可能15。事实证明，这特别有用的一个领域是动作准备的研究，最常见的是通过研究单关节运动18。然而，对自然主义多关节运动（如伸展）的TMS研究相对较少。
目前的目标是设计一种延迟反应到达任务，包括行为运动学，在线单脉冲TMS管理以及来自多个肌肉的同时肌电图记录。该任务包括一个二维点对点到达范式，使用水平方向的监视器进行在线视觉反馈，使得视觉反馈与到达轨迹相匹配（即，在真实反馈期间的 1:1 关系，视觉反馈和运动之间没有转换）。目前的设计还包括一组视觉运动扰动试验。在提供的示例中，这是光标反馈中的 20° 旋转偏移。以前的研究使用类似的到达范式来解决与感觉运动适应相关的机制和计算的问题19，20，21，22，23，24，25。此外，这种方法可以在在线运动学习期间的精确时间点评估运动系统的兴奋性动态。
由于接触已被证明是研究学习/适应的一种富有成效的行为，因此在这种行为的背景下评估CS兴奋性具有揭示这些行为所涉及的神经基质的巨大潜力。这些可能包括局部抑制影响，调谐特性的变化，神经事件的时间等，正如在非人类灵长类动物研究中已经建立的那样。然而，这些特征在人类和临床人群中更难量化。在人类没有明显运动的情况下，也可以使用TMS和EMG组合方法（即，在准备运动或休息时）研究神经动力学。
所提供的工具是开源的，代码很容易适应。这种新颖的范式将对伸展运动的准备、执行、终止和适应所涉及的机制产生重要的见解。此外，这种方法的组合有可能揭示电生理学与人类到达行为之间的关系。

<table><tbody><tr><td>2-Port Native PCI Express&amp;nbsp;</td><td>StarTech.com</td><td>RS232 Card with 16950 UART&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Must be compatible with desktop computer</td></tr><tr><td>Adjustable 80-20 aluminum frame</td><td>any</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alcohol prep pads</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>EMG preparation</td></tr><tr><td>Bagnoli Bipolar Electrodes</td><td>Delsys</td><td>DE 2.1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bagnoli Reference Electrode</td><td>Delsys</td><td>USX2000</td><td>2&amp;rdquo; (5cm) Round</td></tr><tr><td>Bagnoli-8 EMG System</td><td>Delsys</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chair</td><td>any</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Computer monitor for EMG/TMS</td><td>n/a</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Desk</td><td>any</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Desktop Computer</td><td>Dell</td><td>xps 8930</td><td>RAM: 16 GB, Storage: 1TB, Graphics: 1060 6GB&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>EMG electrodes</td><td>Delsys</td><td>Sensor Adhesive Interface</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fine grain sandpaper</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>EMG preparation</td></tr><tr><td>Graphics tablet</td><td>Wacom</td><td>Intuos-4 XL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Handle of paint roller</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>to be used as stylus handle, hollowed out center must be large enough for stylus to sit securely inside&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Medical tape</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>To secure EMG electrodes</td></tr><tr><td>PCI-6220 card DAQ</td><td>National Instruments</td><td></td><td>To interface EMG system</td></tr><tr><td>Photodiode Sensor</td><td>Vishay</td><td>BPW21R</td><td>To record timing of task events into EMG trace.</td></tr><tr><td>Rear TMS port</td><td>Magstim</td><td></td><td>Included with TMS machine</td></tr><tr><td>Right-handed polyethylene glove</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>Cut out thumb and index finger of glove to expose FDI muscle</td></tr><tr><td>Sensory Adhesive Interface, 2-slot</td><td>Delsys</td><td>SC-F01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stylus</td><td>Wacom</td><td>Intuos-4 grip pen</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tablet-to-Computer USB cable&amp;nbsp;</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>Included in Tablet purchase</td></tr><tr><td>Task Monitor</td><td>Asus</td><td>VG248</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TMS coil</td><td>Magstim</td><td>D70 Remote Coil</td><td>7cm diameter, figure-of-eight coil</td></tr><tr><td>TMS machine</td><td>Magstim</td><td>200-2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TMS-to-Computer DB9 cable</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>Connects to PCIe Serial Card</td></tr><tr><td>Velcro</td><td>any</td><td></td><td>To be placed on glove and stylus handle</td></tr></tbody></table>

assessing corticospinal excitability during goal-directed reaching behavior

伸展是运动生理学和神经科学研究中广泛研究的行为。虽然已经使用各种行为操作检查了到达，但在理解到达计划、执行和控制所涉及的神经过程方面仍然存在重大差距。这里描述的新方法将二维到达任务与经颅磁刺激（TMS）和来自多个肌肉的同步肌电图（EMG）记录相结合。该方法允许在伸展运动展开期间的精确时间点无创检测皮质脊髓活动。示例任务代码包括一个延迟响应到达任务，其中两个可能的目标显示在偏离中线 45° ±。单脉冲TMS在大多数任务试验中提供，无论是在准备提示（基线）开始时还是在命令性提示（延迟）之前100毫秒。该样品设计适用于研究 REACH 制备过程中皮质脊髓兴奋性的变化。示例代码还包括视觉运动扰动（即光标旋转 ± 20°），以研究适应对 REACH 准备过程中皮质脊髓兴奋性的影响。可以调整任务参数和TMS交付，以解决有关到达行为期间运动系统状态的特定假设。在最初的实施中，83%的TMS试验成功诱发了运动诱发电位（MEP），并在所有试验中记录了到达轨迹。

所描述方法的成功执行包括记录片剂数据、肌电图痕迹和可靠地引出 MEP。完成了一项实验，其中包括270项测试试验，其中4/5试验（216项试验）提供了TMS。
数据来自16名年龄在25岁±10岁的参与者（8名女性8名男性），他们都自我报告为右撇子。我们通过推导一位代表性参与者的学习函数来评估视觉扰动对行为表现的有效性。 这些数据如图1B 所示，并显示参与者的手靶误差按预期调整为扰动和冲刷条件。我们还评估了基线到达期间目标误差的标准偏差，约为4.5°（图1B）。这与以前的研究一致24。
每次试验均提供一次TMS脉冲。一半的脉冲在基线时传递，一半在准备延迟期间传递（图2A）。每个参与者平均成功记录了91个±23个基线和88个±20个延迟的MEP，分别对应于84%和81%的成功率。仅当幅度超过.05 mV时才计算MEP。在所有试验中，从图形输入板成功捕获了到达轨迹，不包括捕获试验（即，未呈现"go"提示的试验和参与者未能发起覆盖或在命令提示之前启动的试验）。
平均延迟周期（预备提示和命令提示之间的持续时间）为 915 ± 0.5 毫秒（平均±标准差）。基线TMS在准备提示开始后26±8 ms施用，延迟TMS在命令性提示开始前126±3 ms（图2B）。在每种情况下，与预期的TMS管理时间的一致偏差表明需要进一步优化以解决硬件或软件组件引入的意外延迟。然而，这些延迟中相对较低的比例方差表明，这些大多是固定的延迟，可以通过额外的试点测试来控制，并表明事件的时间在试验中通常是可靠的。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64238/64238fig01.jpg"> 图 1:从平板电脑收集的行为数据 。 （A）工作区包括起始位置（深蓝色），两个目标（青色）以及来自单个参与者的预曝光块的一组代表性到达轨迹。（B）目标误差计算为从到达终点到目标中心的距离（以度为单位）。试验箱是每个箱连续两次试验的平均值，数据由实验块分隔:预曝光（无阴影）、曝光（红色）、无反馈时的冲洗（绿色）和具有真实反馈的冲洗（无阴影）。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64238/64238fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的大图。</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64238/64238fig02.jpg"> 图 2:示例 MEP 迹线。 （A） 两个实验时期（基线和延迟）的代表性 MEP 和相应的光电二极管迹线。（B）负基线MEP延迟（-26±8毫秒）表示TMS刺激在准备提示之后到达，而正延迟MEP延迟（126±3毫秒）表示TMS刺激在所需时间点之前到达（命令式提示前100毫秒）。所有参与者的延迟平均值（n = 16）。<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64238/64238fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的大图。</a>
补充图1:到达装置的蓝图。<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64238/TabletStand.pdf" target="_blank">请点击此处下载此文件。</a>
补充编码文件1:视觉刺激代码。 该delayed_reach_TMS.m文件包含用于控制片剂，刺激呈现，经颅磁刺激和肌电图记录的任务代码。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64238/delayed_reach_TMS.m" target="_blank">请点击此处下载此文件。</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Corticospinal Excitability During Goal-Directed Reaching Behavior at JoVE.com

Assessing Corticospinal Excitability During Goal-Directed Reaching Behavior

伸手是允许人类与环境互动的基本技能。一些研究旨在使用各种方法表征到达行为。本文提供了经颅磁刺激的开源应用，以评估人类在达到任务执行期间的皮质脊髓兴奋状态。

评估目标导向到达行为期间的皮质脊髓兴奋性

Reaching is a widely studied behavior in motor physiology and neuroscience research. While reaching has been examined using a variety of behavioral ...

assessing-corticospinal-excitability-during-goal-directed-reaching

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

1.6K 次观看.  University of Oregon. 伸手是允许人类与环境互动的基本技能。一些研究旨在使用各种方法表征到达行为。本文提供了经颅磁刺激的开源应用，以评估人类在达到任务执行期间的皮质脊髓兴奋状态。

视频: Assessing Corticospinal Excitability During Goal-Directed Reaching Behavior

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation

This study used the transcranial magnetic stimulation/motor evoked potential (TMS/MEP) technique to pinpoint when the automatic tendency to mirror someone else's action becomes anticipatory simulation of a complementary act. TMS was delivered to the left primary motor cortex corresponding to the hand to induce the highest level of MEP activity from the abductor digiti minimi (ADM; the muscle serving little finger abduction) as well as the first dorsal interosseus (FDI; the muscle serving index finger flexion/extension) muscles. A neuronavigation system was used to maintain the position of the TMS coil, and electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from the right ADM and FDI muscles. Producing original data with regard to motor resonance, the combined TMS/MEP technique has taken research on the perception-action coupling mechanism a step further. Specifically, it has answered the questions of how and when observing another person's actions produces motor facilitation in an onlooker's corresponding muscles and in what way corticospinal excitability is modulated in social contexts.

Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation over the primary motor cortex, neuronavigation, and registration of electromyographic activity of hand muscles were used in this study to explore corticospinal excitability while participants were observing action sequences.

行动观察期间皮质脊体兴奋调节

This study used the transcranial magnetic stimulation/motor evoked potential (TMS/MEP) technique to pinpoint when the automatic tendency to mirror someone ...

科研

行为学

Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior

Kinesthetic awareness is important to successfully navigate the environment. When we interact with our daily surroundings, some aspects of movement are deliberately planned, while others spontaneously occur below conscious awareness. The deliberate component of this dichotomy has been studied extensively in several contexts, while the spontaneous component remains largely under-explored. Moreover, how perceptual processes modulate these movement classes is still unclear. In particular, a currently debated issue is whether the visuomotor system is governed by the spatial percept produced by a visual illusion or whether it is not affected by the illusion and is governed instead by the veridical percept. Bistable percepts such as 3D depth inversion illusions (DIIs) provide an excellent context to study such interactions and balance, particularly when used in combination with reach-to-grasp movements. In this study, a methodology is developed that uses a DII to clarify the role of top-down processes on motor action, particularly exploring how reaches toward a target on a DII are affected in both deliberate and spontaneous movement domains.

It is unclear how top-down signals from the ventral visual stream affect movement. We developed a paradigm to test motor behavior towards a target on a 3D depth inversion illusion. Significant differences are reported in both deliberate, goal-directed movements and automatic actions under illusory and veridical viewing conditions.

方法探索自上而下视觉过程对电机性能的影响

Kinesthetic awareness is important to successfully navigate the environment. When we interact with our daily surroundings, some aspects of movement are ...

Force and Position Control in Humans - The Role of Augmented Feedback

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is constantly integrated into the central nervous system and these sensory inputs need to be weighted in order meet the task specific goals. Additional feedback presented as augmented feedback was shown to have an impact on motor control and motor learning. A number of studies investigated whether force or position feedback has an influence on motor control and neural activation. However, as in the previous studies the presentation of the force and position feedback was always identical, a recent study assessed whether not only the content but also the interpretation of the feedback has an influence on the time to fatigue of a sustained submaximal contraction and the (inhibitory) activity of the primary motor cortex using subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation. This paper describes one possible way to investigate the influence of the interpretation of feedback on motor behaviour by investigating the time to fatigue of submaximal sustained contractions together with the neuromuscular adaptations that can be investigated using surface EMG. Furthermore, the current protocol also describes how motor cortical (inhibitory) activity can be investigated using subthreshold TMS, a method known to act solely on the cortical level. The results show that when participants interpret the feedback as position feedback, they display a significantly shorter time to fatigue of a submaximal sustained contraction. Furthermore, subjects also displayed an increased inhibitory activity of the primary cortex when they believed to receive position feedback compared when they believed to receive force feedback. Accordingly, the results show that interpretation of feedback results in differences on a behavioural level (time to fatigue) that is also reflected in interpretation-specific differences in the amount of inhibitory M1 activity.

Controlling an identical movement with position or force feedback results in different neural activation and motor behavior. This protocol describes how to investigate behavioral changes by looking at neuromuscular fatigue and how to evaluate motor cortical (inhibitory) activity using subthreshold TMS with respect to the interpretation of augmented feedback.

力和位置控制人类 - 增强反馈的作用

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is ...

Investigating Motor Skill Learning Processes with a Robotic Manipulandum

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be time-intensive and ambiguous to quantify beyond simple success rates. Here, we describe the training procedure for reach-and-pull tasks with ETH Pattus, a robotic platform for automated forelimb reaching training that records pulling and hand rotation movements in rats. Kinematic quantification of the performed pulling attempts reveals the presence of distinct temporal profiles of movement parameters such as pulling velocity, spatial variability of the pulling trajectory, deviation from midline, as well as pulling success. We show how minor adjustments in the training paradigm result in alterations in these parameters, revealing their relation to task difficulty, general motor function or skilled task execution. Combined with electrophysiological, pharmacological and optogenetic techniques, this paradigm can be used to explore the mechanisms underlying motor learning and memory formation, as well as loss and recovery of function (e.g. after stroke).

A paradigm is presented for training and analysis of an automated skilled reaching task in rats. Analysis of pulling attempts reveals distinct subprocesses of motor learning.

调查运动技能的学习过程与机器人Manipulandum

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be ...

Intracortical Inhibition Within the Primary Motor Cortex Can Be Modulated by Changing the Focus of Attention

It is well recognized that an external focus (EF) compared with an internal focus (IF) of attention improves motor learning and performance. Studies have indicated benefits in accuracy, balance, force production, jumping performance, movement speed, oxygen consumption, and fatiguing task. Although behavioral outcomes of using an EF strategy are well explored, the underlying neural mechanisms remain unknown. A recent TMS study compared the activity of the primary motor cortex (M1) between an EF and an IF. More precisely, this study showed that, when adopting an EF, the activity of intracortical inhibitory circuits is enhanced.
On the behavioral level, the present protocol tests the influence of attentional foci on the time to task failure (TTF) when performing submaximal contractions of the first dorsal interosseous (FDI). Additionally, the current paper describes two TMS protocols to assess the influence of attentional conditions on the activity of cortical inhibitory circuits within the M1. Thus, the present article describes how to use single-pulse TMS at intensities below the motor threshold (subTMS) and paired-pulse TMS, inducing short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) when applied to the M1. As these methods are assumed to reflect the responsiveness of GABAergic inhibitory neurons, without being affected by spinal reflex circuitries, they are well suited to measuring the activity of intracortical inhibitory circuits within the M1.
The results show that directing attention externally improves motor performance, as participants were able to prolong the time to task failure. Moreover, the results were accompanied by a larger subTMS-induced electromyography suppression and SICI when adopting an EF compared to an IF. As the level of cortical inhibition within the M1 was previously demonstrated to influence motor performance, the enhanced inhibition with an EF might contribute to the better movement efficiency observed in the behavioral task, indicated by a prolonged TTF with an EF.

Using two different transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) protocols, this manuscript describes how to measure and compare cortical inhibition within the primary motor cortex when adopting different attentional foci.

通过改变注意力的焦点, 可以调节皮质在初级运动皮层内的抑制

It is well recognized that an external focus (EF) compared with an internal focus (IF) of attention improves motor learning and performance. Studies have ...

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Assessment of reactive balance traditionally imposes some type of perturbation to upright stance or gait followed by measurement of the resultant corrective behavior. These measures include muscle responses, limb movements, ground reaction forces, and even direct neurophysiological measures such as electroencephalography. Using this approach, researchers and clinicians can infer some basic principles regarding how the nervous system controls balance to avoid a fall. One limitation with the way in which these assessments are currently used is that they heavily emphasize reflexive actions without any need to revise automatic postural reactions. Such an exclusive focus on these highly stereotypical reactions would fail to adequately address how we can modify these reactions should the need arise (e.g., avoiding an obstacle with a recovery step). This would appear to be a glaring omission when one considers the enormous complexity of the environments we face daily. Overall, the status quo when evaluating the neural control of balance fails to truly expose how higher brain resources contribute to preventing falls in complex settings. The present protocol offers a way to require suppression of automatic, but inappropriate corrective balance reactions, and force a selection among alternative action choices to successfully recover balance following postural perturbation.

Here we offer a protocol that allows the user to selectively change affordances and/or constraints on movements that are relevant for recovering balance after postural perturbation.

改进的精益和释放技术，强调反应抑制和反应平衡中的动作选择

Assessment of reactive balance traditionally imposes some type of perturbation to upright stance or gait followed by measurement of the resultant ...

Measuring and Manipulating Functionally Specific Neural Pathways in the Human Motor System with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Understanding interactions between brain areas is important for the study of goal-directed behavior. Functional neuroimaging of brain connectivity has provided important insights into fundamental processes of the brain like cognition, learning, and motor control. However, this approach cannot provide causal evidence for the involvement of brain areas of interest. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a powerful, noninvasive tool for studying the human brain that can overcome this limitation by transiently modifying brain activity. Here, we highlight recent advances using a paired-pulse, dual-site TMS method with two coils that causally probes cortico-cortical interactions in the human motor system during different task contexts. Additionally, we describe a dual-site TMS protocol based on cortical paired associative stimulation (cPAS) that transiently enhances synaptic efficiency in two interconnected brain areas by applying repeated pairs of cortical stimuli with two coils. These methods can provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying cognitive-motor function as well as a new perspective on manipulating specific neural pathways in a targeted fashion to modulate brain circuits and improve behavior. This approach may prove to be an effective tool to develop more sophisticated models of brain-behavior relations and improve diagnosis and treatment of many neurological and psychiatric disorders.

This article describes new approaches to measure and strengthen functionally specific neural pathways with transcranial magnetic stimulation. These advanced noninvasive brain stimulation methodologies can provide new opportunities for the understanding of brain-behavior relations and development of new therapies to treat brain disorders.

利用颅内磁刺激测量和操纵人体运动系统中功能特定的神经通路

Understanding interactions between brain areas is important for the study of goal-directed behavior. Functional neuroimaging of brain connectivity has ...

神经科学

An Emerging Target Paradigm to Evoke Fast Visuomotor Responses on Human Upper Limb Muscles

To reach towards a seen object, visual information has to be transformed into motor commands. Visual information such as the object&#8217;s color, shape, and size are processed and integrated within numerous brain areas, then ultimately relayed to the motor periphery. In some instances, a reaction is needed as fast as possible. These fast visuomotor transformations, and their underlying neurological substrates, are poorly understood in humans as they have lacked a reliable biomarker. Stimulus-locked responses (SLRs) are short latency (&#60;100 ms) bursts of electromyographic (EMG) activity representing the first wave of muscle recruitment influenced by visual stimulus presentation. SLRs provide a quantifiable output of rapid visuomotor transformations, but SLRs have not been consistently observed in all subjects in past studies. Here we describe a new, behavioral paradigm featuring the sudden emergence of a moving target below an obstacle that consistently evokes robust SLRs. Human participants generated visually guided reaches toward or away from the emerging target using a robotic manipulandum while surface electrodes recorded EMG activity from the pectoralis major muscle. In comparison to previous studies that investigated SLRs using static stimuli, the SLRs evoked with this emerging target paradigm were larger, evolved earlier, and were present in all participants. Reach reaction times (RTs) were also expedited in the emerging target paradigm. This paradigm affords numerous opportunities for modification that could permit systematic study of the impact of various sensory, cognitive, and motor manipulations on fast visuomotor responses. Overall, our results demonstrate that an emerging target paradigm is capable of consistently and robustly evoking activity within a fast visuomotor system.

Presented here is a behavioral paradigm that elicits robust fast visuomotor responses on human upper limb muscles during visually guided reaches.

唤起人类上肢肌肉快速视觉运动反应的新兴目标范式

To reach towards a seen object, visual information has to be transformed into motor commands. Visual information such as the object&#8217;s color, shape, ...

In Vivo Wireless Optogenetic Control of Skilled Motor Behavior

Fine motor skills are essential in everyday life and can be compromised in several nervous system disorders. The acquisition and performance of these tasks require sensory-motor integration and involve precise control of bilateral brain circuits. Implementing unimanual behavioral paradigms in animal models will improve the understanding of the contribution of brain structures, like the striatum, to complex motor behavior as it allows manipulation and recording of neural activity of specific nuclei in control conditions and disease during the performance of the task. 
Since its creation, optogenetics has been a dominant tool for interrogating the brain by enabling selective and targeted activation or inhibition of neuronal populations. The combination of optogenetics with behavioral assays sheds light on the underlying mechanisms of specific brain functions. Wireless head-mounted systems with miniaturized light-emitting diodes (LEDs) allow remote optogenetic control in an entirely free-moving animal. This avoids the limitations of a wired system being less restrictive for animals' behavior without compromising light emission efficiency. The current protocol combines a wireless optogenetics approach with high-speed videography in a unimanual dexterity task to dissect the contribution of specific neuronal populations to fine motor behavior.

In Vivo Wireless Optogenetic Control of Skilled Motor Behavior

The present protocol describes how to use wireless optogenetics combined with high-speed videography in a single pellet reach-to-grasp task to characterize the neural circuits involved in the performance of skilled motor behavior in freely moving mice.

体内 熟练运动行为的无线光遗传学控制

Fine motor skills are essential in everyday life and can be compromised in several nervous system disorders. The acquisition and performance of these ...

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>单侧神经损伤中手部使用的定量评估

Block Building Task Identifies Distinct Groups of Left/Right-hand Choice Patterns After Unilateral Peripheral Nerve Injury

Numerous methods exist to assess hand and arm function after upper extremity peripheral nerve injury, but peripheral injuries are often unilateral, and few existing methods are designed to capture the unique consequences of unilateral injury. Unilateral impairment of an upper extremity can lead to increased or decreased use of the dominant hand, and either change may be adaptive or maladaptive depending on the individual patient&#8217;s needs. To identify atypical hand usage (left/right choices), researchers and clinicians need to measure it. However, hand usage is traditionally assessed with self-report surveys, which do not necessarily reflect actual left/right-hand choices. Here, this gap in knowledge is addressed with the Block Building Task (BBT), which provides a rapid, quantitative, inexpensive assessment of left/right-hand choices in an unconstrained environment. In the BBT, participants build abstract shapes with interlocking plastic bricks, with no instructions about hand usage. The primary outcome is the fraction of reaches (i.e., for the initial pickup of each brick) made with each hand. After unilateral peripheral nerve injury, patients fell into three clusters: approximately typical hand use (44%), always use the dominant hand (44%), or never use the dominant hand (13%). Even among patients with an injured dominant hand, atypically elevated use of the dominant hand occurred regularly (36%). Notably, hand usage was not predicted by clinical characteristics, so the BBT provides an objective measurement of left/right-hand choices that are not otherwise predictable from the clinical characteristics of patients with peripheral nerve injury. The BBT protocol will be of interest to researchers or clinicians interested in the assessment of conditions with asymmetric effects on the upper limb.

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>Block Building 任务识别单侧周围神经损伤后不同的左/右手选择模式组

The block-building task provides a rapid, objective, quantitative measurement of how often individuals choose to use their left versus right hand for reach-to-grasp action. After unilateral peripheral nerve injury, patients often shift to near-total usage of one hand, the direction of which is not predictable from other clinical factors.

Block Building 任务识别单侧周围神经损伤后不同的左/右手选择模式组

Numerous methods exist to assess hand and arm function after upper extremity peripheral nerve injury, but peripheral injuries are often unilateral, and ...

评估目标导向到达行为期间的皮质脊髓兴奋性

摘要

探索更多视频

此视频中的章节

行动观察期间皮质脊体兴奋调节

方法探索自上而下视觉过程对电机性能的影响

力和位置控制人类 - 增强反馈的作用

调查运动技能的学习过程与机器人Manipulandum

通过改变注意力的焦点, 可以调节皮质在初级运动皮层内的抑制

改进的精益和释放技术，强调反应抑制和反应平衡中的动作选择

利用颅内磁刺激测量和操纵人体运动系统中功能特定的神经通路

唤起人类上肢肌肉快速视觉运动反应的新兴目标范式

体内熟练运动行为的无线光遗传学控制

Block Building 任务识别单侧周围神经损伤后不同的左/右手选择模式组

评估目标导向到达行为期间的皮质脊髓兴奋性

摘要

探索更多视频

此视频中的章节

行动观察期间皮质脊体兴奋调节

方法探索自上而下视觉过程对电机性能的影响

力和位置控制人类 - 增强反馈的作用

调查运动技能的学习过程与机器人Manipulandum

通过改变注意力的焦点, 可以调节皮质在初级运动皮层内的抑制

改进的精益和释放技术，强调反应抑制和反应平衡中的动作选择

利用颅内磁刺激测量和操纵人体运动系统中功能特定的神经通路

唤起人类上肢肌肉快速视觉运动反应的新兴目标范式

体内 熟练运动行为的无线光遗传学控制

Block Building 任务识别单侧周围神经损伤后不同的左/右手选择模式组

体内熟练运动行为的无线光遗传学控制