Die Autoren danken finanzielle Unterstützung von der Scotts Miracle-Gro Company für diese Anlage. Wir sind auch dankbar auf die Toro Co. für die Unterstützung mit der Bereitstellung der Bewässerungssteuerung. Die Vision und Planung von dem verstorbenen Dr. Chris Steigler in den frühen Phasen des Projektes wird auch dankbar anerkannt. Die Autoren möchte auch Frau N. Stanley für ihre technische Unterstützung bei der Probenvorbereitung und Analyse danken.

<ol>
	<li>Fulton, W., Pendall, R., Nguyen, M., Harrison, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Who+sprawls+most?+How+growth+patterns+differ+across+the+U.S.+The+Brookings+Institution+Survey+Series.">Who sprawls most? How growth patterns differ across the U.S. The Brookings Institution Survey Series.</a> http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2001/7/metropolitanpolicy%20fulton/fulton. , (2001).</li><li>White, R. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+much+water+is+'enough'?+Using+PET+to+develop+water+budgets+for+residential+landscapes.">How much water is 'enough'? Using PET to develop water budgets for residential landscapes.</a> Proc. Texas Sec. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 7, 7 (2004).</li><li>Walsh, C. J., Roy, A. H., Feminella, J. W., Cottingham, P. D., Groffman, P. M., Morgan, R. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+urban+stream+syndrome:+current+knowledge+and+the+search+for+a+cure.">The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure.</a> J. North Am. Benthol. Soc. 24, 706-723 (2005).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=4R+Plant+Nutrition:+A+Manual+for+Improving+the+Management+of+Plant+Nutrition.">4R Plant Nutrition: A Manual for Improving the Management of Plant Nutrition.</a> International Plant Nutrition Institute. , (2012).</li><li>Miyomoto, S., Chacon, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Soil+salinity+of+urban+turf+area+irrigated+with+saline+water+II.+Soil+factors.">Soil salinity of urban turf area irrigated with saline water II. Soil factors.</a> Landsc. Urban Plan. 77, 28-38 (2006).</li><li>Steele, M. K., Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Urban+soils+of+Texas:+Relating+irrigation+sodicity+to+water-extractable+carbon+and+nutrients.">Urban soils of Texas: Relating irrigation sodicity to water-extractable carbon and nutrients.</a> Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 76, 972-982 (2012).</li><li>Steele, M. K., Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salt+impacts+on+organic+carbon+and+nitrogen+leaching+from+senesced+vegetation.">Salt impacts on organic carbon and nitrogen leaching from senesced vegetation.</a> Biogeochem. 112, 245-259 (2013).</li><li>Washbusch, R. J., Selbig, W. R., Bannerman, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sources+of+phosphorus+in+stormwater+and+street+dirt+from+two+urban+residential+basins.">Sources of phosphorus in stormwater and street dirt from two urban residential basins.</a> National Conference on Tools for Urban Water Resource Management and Protection Proceedings. , (2000).</li><li>Pitt, R., Chen, S., Clark, S. E., Swenson, J., Ong, C. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Compaction's+impacts+on+urban+storm-water+infiltration.">Compaction's impacts on urban storm-water infiltration.</a> J. Irrigation Drainage Eng. 134, 652-658 (2008).</li><li>Kelling, K. A., Peterson, A. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Urban+lawn+infiltration+rates+and+fertilizer+runoff+losses+under+simulated+rainfall.">Urban lawn infiltration rates and fertilizer runoff losses under simulated rainfall.</a> Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 39, 349-352 (1975).</li><li>Edmondson, J. L., Davies, Z. G., McCormack, S. A., Gaston, K. J., Leake, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+soils+in+urban+ecosystems+compacted?+A+citywide+analysis.">Are soils in urban ecosystems compacted? A citywide analysis.</a> Biol. Lett. 7, 771-774 (2011).</li><li>Cunningham, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+suburban+stream+syndrome:+Evaluating+land+use+and+stream+impairments+in+the+suburbs.">The suburban stream syndrome: Evaluating land use and stream impairments in the suburbs.</a> Phys. Geogr. 30, 269-284 (2009).</li><li>Erickson, J. E., Cisar, J. L., Volin, J. C., Snyder, G. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparing+nitrogen+runoff+and+leaching+between+newly+established+St.+Augustinegrass+turf+and+an+alternative+residential+landscape.">Comparing nitrogen runoff and leaching between newly established St. Augustinegrass turf and an alternative residential landscape.</a> Crop Sci. 41, 1889-1895 (2001).</li><li>Morton, T. G., Gold, A. J., Sullivan, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+overwatering+and+fertilization+on+nitrogen+losses+from+home+lawns.">Influence of overwatering and fertilization on nitrogen losses from home lawns.</a> J. Environ. Qual. 17, 124-130 (1988).</li><li>O'Dell, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+415.1+Organic+carbon,+total+(combustion+or+oxidation).">Method 415.1 Organic carbon, total (combustion or oxidation).</a> Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. , 415.1-415.3 (1983).</li><li>O'Dell, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+phosphorus+by+semi+automated+colorimetry.+Environmental+monitoring+systems+laboratory,+Office+of+research+and+development.">Determination of phosphorus by semi automated colorimetry. Environmental monitoring systems laboratory, Office of research and development.</a> U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. , (1993).</li><li>O'Dell, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+nitrate+nitrogen+by+semi+automated+colorimetry.+Revision+2.0+Edited+by+JW+O'Dell,+Environmental+monitoring+systems+laboratory.">Determination of nitrate nitrogen by semi automated colorimetry. Revision 2.0 Edited by JW O'Dell, Environmental monitoring systems laboratory.</a> Office of research and development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. , (1993).</li><li>O'Dell, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+ammonia+nitrogen+by+semi+automated+colorimetry.+Revision+2.0+Edited+by+JW+O'Dell,+Environmental+monitoring+systems+laboratory.">Determination of ammonia nitrogen by semi automated colorimetry. Revision 2.0 Edited by JW O'Dell, Environmental monitoring systems laboratory.</a> Office of research and development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. , (1993).</li><li>Gobel, P., Dierkes, C., Coldewey, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Storm+water+runoff+concentration+matrix+for+urban+areas.">Storm water runoff concentration matrix for urban areas.</a> J. Contam. Hydrol. 91, 26-42 (2007).</li><li>Vietor, D. M., Provin, T. L., White, R. H., Munster, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Runoff+losses+of+phosphorus+and+nitrogen+imported+in+sod+or+composted+manure+for+turf+establishment.">Runoff losses of phosphorus and nitrogen imported in sod or composted manure for turf establishment.</a> J. Env. Qual. 33, 358-366 (2004).</li></ol>

Mit Ausnahme von S. Kelly als ein Mitarbeiter der Scotts Miracle-Gro Company, erklären die Autoren, dass sie keine finanziellen Interessen konkurrieren.

Wasser über fließen, in, und durch Böden ist stark von der Topographie, Vegetationsdecke und der Boden physikalischen Eigenschaften beeinflusst. Mäßig verdichteten Böden und Böden mit hohem Ton Inhalte reduziert Infiltrationsraten und erhöhte Mengen des Abflusses aufweisen. Daher beim Bau einer Anlage dieser Art, sollte alles unternommen werden, um einheimischen Böden mit gleichmäßigen Steigungen verwenden und Verdichtung zu minimieren aus allen Arten von Verkehr auf den Versuchsflächen während der Bauphase...

Vier der am schnellsten wachsenden, dicht besiedelten Ballungsgebieten sind im Süden der USA in den subtropischen Klimazonen 1 entfernt. Darüber hinaus trat der größte prozentuale Veränderung der Baugrund zwischen 1982 und 1997 im Süden der USA ein. Mit erhöhten städtischen Gebieten kommt eine gleichzeitige Nachfrage nach Trinkwasser, von denen viele für den Außenbereich in den Sommermonaten 2 verwendet. Mit neuen Konstruktion sind programmierbar in-Boden-Bewässerungssysteme oft installiert. Leider sind diese Systeme oft so programmiert, dass die Bewässerung zu Stadtgestaltung häufiger und / oder in Mengen, die Evapotranspiration Anforderungen der Landschaft 2 übertreffen. Dies führt zu einer beträchtlichen Anzahl von Abfluss von Stadtgestaltung in den Vorfluter, die zu dem, was wurde städtischen Strom-Syndrom 3 bezeichnet beiträgt. Symptome der städtischen Strom-Syndrom sind eine erhöhte Häufigkeit von Überlandstrom und erosive Fluss, erhöhte nitrogen (N), Phosphor (P), Giftstoffe und Temperatur zusätzlich zu Änderungen der Kanalmorphologie, Süßwasserbiologie, und Ökosystemprozesse 3. Verluste von N und P aus landwirtschaftlichen Ökosysteme wurden umfassend untersucht und festgestellt, vor allem abhängig von vier Faktoren zu sein: Nährstoffquelle, Verbrauch, Anwendungszeitpunkt und Nährstoffplatzierung 4. Während weniger veröffentlichten Daten, die derzeit auf Off-Site-Bewegung von Nährstoffen aus Stadtlandschaften vorhanden sind, können diese Prinzipien direkt auf Rasen Kultur angewendet werden, egal ob im Home-Rasen, sod Farmen, Parks oder andere Grünflächen. Zusätzlich können falsche Bewässerungsmethoden, die in Abfluss aus der Landschaft führen diese Verluste verschärfen. Nährstoffverluste können durch Bewässerungswasserqualität verändert werden. Gebiete im Südwesten der USA nutzen oft mehr Kochsalzlösung oder Natron Wasser für die Bewässerung der Rasenfläche und Stadtlandschaften 5,6. Die chemische Zusammensetzungdas Bewässerungswasser kann Bodenchemie erheblich verändern was zu einer Freisetzung von Kohlenstoff, Stickstoff, Kalzium und anderen Kationen bis zur Tropfwasser. Neuere Arbeiten haben gezeigt, dass erhöhte Natrium-Absorptionsverhältnis (SAR) der Gewinnung von Wasser die Mengen an Kohlenstoff (C) und Stickstoff (N) von St. Augustinegrass Ausschnitte, Weidelgras Ausschnitte und andere organische Materialien 7 ausgelaugt deutlich erhöht. Darüber hinaus wurden an wasserlöslichen Boden C, N, P und Verluste aus Freizeitrasen Böden erheblich mit Wasser zur Bewässerung chemischen Bestandteile 6 korreliert. Washbusch et al. studierte städtischen Abfluss in Madison, WI, und festgestellt, dass Rasenflächen waren die größten Beitragszahler der Gesamtphosphor 8. Darüber hinaus haben sie auch festgestellt, dass 25% der gesamten P in &quot;Straße Dirt&quot; entstand aus Blättern und Grasschnitt. In einer typischen ländlichen Umgebung, Laub fällt auf den Boden und dann zersetzt sich langsam freisetzenden Nährstoffe zurück in die sÖl-Umgebung. Doch im städtischen Umfeld, erhebliche Mengen an nährstoffreichen Blätter und Grasschnitt kann auf fallen oder gewaschen oder auf Harte Konturen wie Einfahrten, Gehwege und Fahrbahnen, anschließend ihren Weg in den Straßen geblasen zu bekommen, wo sie zu &quot;Straßenschmutz&quot; beitragen , von dem viel wird unmittelbar in ein Gewässer gewaschen. Stadtlandschaft Böden sind oft gestört, und während der Bauphase, die auch Mengen von Abfluss erhöhen können aufgrund der reduzierten Infiltrationsraten 9 hoch verdichtet. Kelling und Peterson berichtet, dass sowohl die Gesamtabflussmenge und die Nährstoffkonzentrationen in Abfluss von zu Hause aus Rasenflächen sind aus Rasenflächen, die verdichtet sind oder schwer gestörten Bodenprofilen aufgrund früherer Bauaktivitäten 10 erhöht. Edmondson et al. auf der anderen Seite festgestellt, dass Stadtböden im Vergleich zu umliegenden landwirtschaftlichen Böden im städtischen und vorstädtischen Bereich Leic waren weniger verdichtetenEster, UK 11. Sie führten dies auf schwere Landmaschinen, aber auch darauf hingewiesen, dass Rasenflächen hatten eine größere Bodenschüttdichte als Boden unter Bäumen und Sträuchern, die Gras mähen und größere Menschentrampling zugeschrieben wurde. Es scheint, dass in vielen Situationen, urbanen und suburbanen Strom-Syndrome sind wesentlich durch Oberflächenabfluss und Punktquellen entlädt 3,12 belastet. Während der Punkt-Quellen können über Genehmigungen und Recycling manipuliert werden, ist eine zusätzliche Forschung notwendig, um Entwicklung und Erprobung besten Management-Verfahren für zu Hause Rasen Einrichtung und Verwaltung, um Nährstoffverluste zu minimieren Abfluss. Historische Forschung in dieser Hinsicht haben oft entlang der Küstengebiete, wo es hohen Gehalt Böden Sand, aufgrund von Bedenken zu den Auswirkungen der Auswaschung und Abfluss Nährstoffeinträge in die Küstengewässer bezogen zentriert worden. Jedoch bei der Arbeit mit sehr sandigen Böden, muss man steilen Hängen und hohen Niederschlagsraten zu können, Gattungen seinte keine Stichwahl 13,14. Im Gegensatz dazu viele der Böden in der Mitte der Vereinigten Staaten sind fein strukturiert und haben eine geringe Infiltrationsraten, die in signifikanten Mengen des Abflusses aus auch kleine Regenereignisse führen. So war es erwünscht, auf heimischen Boden und typisch für jene, die auf Wohnlandschaften auftreten können, Hang entwerfen und bauen eine Abflussmöglichkeiten. Dieses Papier beschreibt die Planung, den Bau und die Funktion eines 1.000 m 2 Anlage mit 24 Einzel 33,6 m 2 Feldparzellen zur Messung Gesamtabflussmengen bei relativ geringen zeitlichen Auflösung und gleichzeitige Sammlung von Ablaufwasser Teilproben an ausgewählten volumetrische oder zeitlichen Abständen für die Messung und Quantifizierung der chemischen Bestandteile des Ablaufwasser.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="778">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Flow meter</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Teledyne Isco</td>
			<td style="width:216px;">Model 4230</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Bubbling flow meter that measures and records water flow through flume</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Portable Sampler</td>
			<td>Teledyne Isco</td>
			<td>Model 6712</td>
			<td>Works in conjunction with the flow meter to collect water samples at predetermined intervals.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flow Link Software to collect data</td>
			<td>Teledyne Isco</td>
			<td>Ver 5.0</td>
			<td>Allows communication between flow meter and computer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pre-sloped trench drain</td>
			<td>Zurn Industries, LLC</td>
			<td>Z-886</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Irrigation Controller</td>
			<td>Toro Company</td>
			<td>VP Satellite</td>
			<td>Controls irrigation to each plot individually</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Electric Valves</td>
			<td>Hunter</td>
			<td>2.5 cm PGV</td>
			<td>Opens or closes water flow to individual plots based on signal from irrigation controller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Spray nozzles</td>
			<td>RainBird</td>
			<td>HE-Van 12</td>
			<td>Sprays irrigation water in predetermined pattern and rate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Irrigation heads</td>
			<td>Hunter</td>
			<td>Pro Spray 4</td>
			<td>4 inch pop up spray heads</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">6 inch slotted drain pipe</td>
			<td>Advanced Drainage Systems</td>
			<td>6410100</td>
			<td>single wall corregated HDPE - slotted</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">6 inch plain drain pipe</td>
			<td>Advanced Drainage Systems</td>
			<td>6400100</td>
			<td>single wall corregated HDPE - plain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Filter Paper</td>
			<td>Whatman GF/F</td>
			<td>1825-047</td>
			<td>47mm diameter, binder-free, glass microfiber filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pH Meter</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>Accumet XL20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Combination pH probe</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-620-130</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Automatic Temperature Compensating Probe</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-602-19</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Electrical conductivity probe</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-620-100</td>
			<td>Cell constant of 1.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">&#160;TOC-VCSH with total nitrogen unit TMN-1</td>
			<td>Shimadzu Corp</td>
			<td>TOC-VCSH with TMN-1</td>
			<td>dissolved C and N analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Smartchem 200</td>
			<td>Unity Scientific</td>
			<td>200</td>
			<td>Discrete Analyzer for P measurement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ICS 1000</td>
			<td>Dionex</td>
			<td>ICS 1000</td>
			<td>Ion Chromatography for Ca, Mg, K and Na measurment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Portable Soil Moisture Meter</td>
			<td>Spectrum&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:216px;">FieldScout TDR 300</td>
			<td>7.5 cm long probes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Totallizing Water Meters</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Badger</td>
			<td style="width:216px;">3/4 inch water meters</td>
			<td>standard homeowner water meters</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

design and construction of an urban runoff research facility

Wie die Stadtbevölkerung zunimmt, nimmt auch die Fläche der bewässerten Stadtlandschaft. Sommer Wassernutzung in städtischen Gebieten kann 2-3x Winter Grundlinie Wassernutzung aufgrund der erhöhten Nachfrage nach Bewässerungslandschaft sein. Unsachgemäße Bewässerungspraktiken und große Niederschlagsereignisse können in Abfluss von urbanen Landschaften, die Möglichkeit, Nährstoffe und Sedimente in die lokalen Bächen und Seen, wo sie zur Eutrophierung beitragen zu tragen hat führen. Ein 1.000 m 2 Anlage wurde konstruiert, das aus 24 Einzel 33,6 m 2 Feldstücke, die jeweils für die Messung Gesamtabflussmengen mit der Zeit und Sammlung von Abflussteilproben in ausgewählten Intervallen zur Quantifizierung der chemischen Bestandteile in der Ablaufwasser aus simulierten Stadtlandschaften ausgestattet besteht. Abflussmengen aus den ersten und zweiten Studien hatten Variationskoeffizienten (CV)-Werte von 38,2 und 28,7% auf. CV-Werte für Stichwahl pH, EC, und Na-Konzentration für beide Studien waren alle unter 10%. Concentrations von DOC, TDN, DON, PO 4-P, K +, Mg 2 + und Ca 2 + hatte CV-Werte von weniger als 50% in beiden Studien. Insgesamt sind die Ergebnisse der Prüfung nach Spatenstich Installation an der Anlage durchgeführt zeigte eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Parzellen für Abflussmengen und chemische Bestandteile. Das große Grundstück ist ausreichend, um viel von der natürlichen Variabilität sind und somit eine bessere Simulation der Stadtlandschaft Ökosysteme.

Diagrammeigenschaften Die durchschnittliche Steigung für alle 24 Grundstücke betrug 3,7% und lag im Bereich von einem Tief von 3,2% für Grundstück 17 zu einer Höhe von 4,1% für die Zeichnung 2 (Tabelle 1). Durchschnittliche Mutterboden Dicke betrug 36 cm und reichten von einem Tiefstand von 25,0 cm für 24 Grundstück zu einer Höhe von 51,5 cm für Grundstück 10 (Tabelle 1). Abflussmengen Abflussmengen aus dem ersten Versuch auf 9. Augu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility at JoVE.com

Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

Dieses Papier beschreibt die Planung, den Bau und die Funktion eines 1.000 m 2 Anlage mit 24 Einzel 33,6 m 2 Feldstücke zum Messen der Gesamtabflussmengen mit der Zeit und Sammlung von Abflussteilproben in ausgewählten Intervallen zur Quantifizierung der chemischen Bestandteile in der Stichwahl Wasser aus ausgestattet simulierten Hause Rasenflächen.

Design und Bau eines Stadt Abfluss Research Facility

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use ...

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Leveling

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

13.0K Aufrufe.  Texas A&M University.  Dieses Papier beschreibt die Planung, den Bau und die Funktion eines 1.000 m 2 Anlage mit 24 Einzel 33,6 m 2 Feldstücke zum Messen der Gesamtabflussmengen mit der Zeit und Sammlung von Abflussteilproben in ausgewählten Intervallen zur Quantifizierung der chemischen Bestandteile in der Stichwahl Wasser aus ausgestattet simulierten Hause Rasenflächen. 

Serie: Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

Design and Operation of a Continuous 13C and 15N Labeling Chamber for Uniform or Differential, Metabolic and Structural, Plant Isotope Labeling

Tracing rare stable isotopes from plant material through the ecosystem provides the most sensitive information about ecosystem processes; from CO2 fluxes and soil organic matter formation to small-scale stable-isotope biomarker probing. Coupling multiple stable isotopes such as 13C with 15N, 18O or&#160;2H has the potential to reveal even more information about complex stoichiometric relationships during biogeochemical transformations. Isotope labeled plant material has been used in various studies of litter decomposition and soil organic matter formation1-4. From these and other studies, however, it has become apparent that structural components of plant material behave differently than metabolic components (i.e. leachable low molecular weight compounds) in terms of microbial utilization and long-term carbon storage5-7. The ability to study structural and metabolic components separately provides a powerful new tool for advancing the forefront of ecosystem biogeochemical studies. Here we describe a method for producing 13C and 15N labeled plant material that is either uniformly labeled throughout the plant or differentially labeled in structural and metabolic plant components.
Here, we present the construction and operation of a continuous 13C and 15N labeling chamber that can be modified to meet various research needs. Uniformly labeled plant material is produced by continuous labeling from seedling to harvest, while differential labeling is achieved by removing the growing plants from the chamber weeks prior to harvest. Representative results from growing Andropogon gerardii Kaw demonstrate the system&#39;s ability to efficiently label plant material at the targeted levels. Through this method we have produced plant material with a 4.4 atom%13C and 6.7 atom%15N uniform plant label, or material that is differentially labeled by up to 1.29 atom%13C and 0.56 atom%15N in its metabolic and structural components (hot water extractable and hot water residual components, respectively). Challenges lie in maintaining proper temperature, humidity, CO2 concentration,&#160;and light levels in an airtight 13C-CO2 atmosphere for successful plant production. This chamber description represents a useful research tool to effectively produce uniformly or differentially multi-isotope labeled plant material for use in experiments on ecosystem biogeochemical cycling.

Design and Operation of a Continuous 13C and 15N Labeling Chamber for Uniform or Differential, Metabolic and Structural, Plant Isotope Labeling

This method explains how to build and operate a continuous 13C and 15N isotope labeling chamber for uniform or differential plant tissue labeling. Representative results from metabolic and structural labeling of Andropogon gerardii are discussed.

Aufbau und Betrieb einer Dauer<sup&gt; 13</sup&gt; C und<sup&gt; 15</sup&gt; N Labeling Kammer für Uniform oder Differential, Stoffwechsel-und Struktur, Pflanze Isotope Labeling

Tracing rare stable isotopes from plant material through the ecosystem provides the most sensitive information about ecosystem processes; from CO2 fluxes ...

Forschung

Umwelt

A Protocol for Conducting Rainfall Simulation to Study Soil Runoff

Rainfall is a driving force for the transport of environmental contaminants from agricultural soils to surficial water bodies via surface runoff. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of antecedent soil moisture content on the fate and transport of surface applied commercial urea, a common form of nitrogen (N) fertilizer, following a rainfall event that occurs within 24&#160;hr&#160;after fertilizer application. Although urea is assumed to be readily hydrolyzed to ammonium and therefore not often available for transport, recent studies suggest that urea can be transported from agricultural soils to coastal waters where it is implicated in harmful algal blooms. A rainfall simulator was used to apply a consistent rate of uniform rainfall across packed soil boxes that had been prewetted to different soil moisture contents. By controlling rainfall and soil physical characteristics, the effects of antecedent soil moisture on urea loss were isolated. Wetter soils exhibited shorter time from rainfall initiation to runoff initiation, greater total volume of runoff, higher urea concentrations in runoff, and greater mass loadings of urea in runoff. These results also demonstrate the importance of controlling for antecedent soil moisture content in studies designed to isolate other variables, such as soil physical or chemical characteristics, slope, soil cover, management, or rainfall characteristics. Because rainfall simulators are designed to deliver raindrops of similar size and velocity as natural rainfall, studies conducted under a standardized protocol can yield valuable data that, in turn, can be used to develop models for predicting the fate and transport of pollutants in runoff.

A rainfall simulator was used to apply a consistent rate of uniform rainfall to packed soil boxes in a study of the fate and transport of urea, a nonpoint source environmental contaminant. Under uniform soil and rainfall conditions, antecedent soil moisture content exerted strong control over urea loss in surface runoff.

Ein Protokoll für die Durchführung Regen Simulation zur Bodenabfluss Studieren

Rainfall is a driving force for the transport of environmental contaminants from agricultural soils to surficial water bodies via surface runoff. The ...

A CO2 Concentration Gradient Facility for Testing CO2 Enrichment and Soil Effects on Grassland Ecosystem Function

Continuing increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (CA) mandate techniques for examining impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. Most experiments examine only two or a few levels of CA concentration and a single soil type, but if CA can be varied as a gradient from subambient to superambient concentrations on multiple soils, we can discern whether past ecosystem responses may continue linearly in the future and whether responses may vary across the landscape. The Lysimeter Carbon Dioxide Gradient Facility applies a 250 to 500 &#181;l L-1 CA gradient to Blackland prairie plant communities established on lysimeters containing clay, silty clay, and sandy soils. The gradient is created as photosynthesis by vegetation enclosed in in temperature-controlled chambers progressively depletes carbon dioxide from air flowing directionally through the chambers. Maintaining proper air flow rate, adequate photosynthetic capacity, and temperature control are critical to overcome the main limitations of the system, which are declining photosynthetic rates and increased water stress during summer. The facility is an economical alternative to other techniques of CA enrichment, successfully discerns the shape of ecosystem responses to subambient to superambient CA enrichment, and can be adapted to test for interactions of carbon dioxide with other greenhouse gases such as methane or ozone.

A CO2 Concentration Gradient Facility for Testing CO2 Enrichment and Soil Effects on Grassland Ecosystem Function

The Lysimeter Carbon Dioxide Gradient Facility creates a 250 to 500 &#181;l L-1 linear carbon dioxide gradient in temperature-controlled chambers housing grassland plant communities on clay, silty clay, and sandy soil monoliths. The facility is used to determine how past and future carbon dioxide levels affect grassland carbon cycling.

Ein CO<sub&gt; 2</sub&gt; Konzentration Gradient Facility for Testing CO<sub&gt; 2</sub&gt; Enrichment und Boden Auswirkungen auf Grünland-Ökosystemen Funktion

Continuing increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (CA) mandate techniques for examining impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. Most ...

Spotting Cheetahs: Identifying Individuals by Their Footprints

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is Africa's most endangered large felid and listed as Vulnerable with a declining population trend by the IUCN1. It ranges widely over sub-Saharan Africa and in parts of the Middle East. Cheetah conservationists face two major challenges, conflict with landowners over the killing of domestic livestock, and concern over range contraction. Understanding of the latter remains particularly poor2. Namibia is believed to support the largest number of cheetahs of any range country, around 30%, but estimates range from 2,9053 to 13,5204. The disparity is likely a result of the different techniques used in monitoring.
Current techniques, including invasive tagging with VHF or satellite/GPS collars, can be costly and unreliable. The footprint identification technique5 is a new tool accessible to both field scientists and also citizens with smartphones, who could potentially augment data collection. The footprint identification technique analyzes digital images of footprints captured according to a standardized protocol. Images are optimized and measured in data visualization software. Measurements of distances, angles, and areas of the footprint images are analyzed using a robust cross-validated pairwise discriminant analysis based on a customized model. The final output is in the form of a Ward's cluster dendrogram. A user-friendly graphic user interface (GUI) allows the user immediate access and clear interpretation of classification results.
The footprint identification technique algorithms are species specific because each species has a unique anatomy. The technique runs in a data visualization software, using its own scripting language (jsl) that can be customized for the footprint anatomy of any species. An initial classification algorithm is built from a training database of footprints from that species, collected from individuals of known identity. An algorithm derived from a cheetah of known identity is then able to classify free-ranging cheetahs of unknown identity. The footprint identification technique predicts individual cheetah identity with an accuracy of &gt;90%.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is an iconic, endangered species, but conservation efforts are challenged by habitat shrinkage and conflict with commercial farmers. The footprint identification technique, a robust, accurate and cost-effective image classification system, is a new approach to monitoring cheetahs.

Spek Cheetahs: Identifizierung von Personen durch ihre Spuren

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is Africa's most endangered large felid and listed as Vulnerable with a declining population trend by the IUCN1. It ranges ...

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Vegetierte Behandlungssysteme zur Entfernung von Verunreinigungen, die mit der Oberflächenwasser-Toxizität in der Landwirtschaft und dem städtischen Abfluss verbunden sind

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

Rearing and Long-Term Maintenance of Eristalis tenax Hoverflies for Research Studies

With an estimated 6000 species worldwide, hoverflies are ecologically important as alternative pollinators to domesticated honeybees. However, they are also a useful scientific model to study motion vision and flight dynamics in a controlled laboratory setting. As the larvae develop in organically polluted water, they are useful models for investigating investment in microbial immunity. While large scale commercial breeding for agriculture already occurs, there are no standardized protocols for maintaining captive populations for scientific studies. This is important as commercial captive breeding programs focusing on mass output during peak pollination periods may fail to provide a population that is consistent, stable and robust throughout the year, as is often needed for other research purposes. Therefore, a method to establish, maintain and refresh a captive research population is required. Here, we describe the utilization of an artificial hibernation cycle, in addition to the nutritional and housing requirements, for long term maintenance of Eristalis tenax. Using these methods, we have significantly increased the health and longevity of captive populations of E. tenax compared to previous reports. We furthermore discuss small scale rearing methods and options for optimizing yields and manipulating population demographics.

Rearing and Long-Term Maintenance of Eristalis tenax Hoverflies for Research Studies

The overall goal of these procedures is to establish, maintain and refresh a captive population of Eristalis tenax in a research setting.

Aufzucht und langfristige Wartung von Schwebfliegen Eristalis Tenax für Forschungsstudien

With an estimated 6000 species worldwide, hoverflies are ecologically important as alternative pollinators to domesticated honeybees. However, they are ...

Design and Use of an Apparatus for Quantifying Bivalve Suspension Feeding at Sea

As shellfish aquaculture moves from coastal embayments and estuaries to offshore locations, the need to quantify ecosystem interactions of farmed bivalves (i.e., mussels, oysters, and clams) presents new challenges. Quantitative data on the feeding behavior of suspension-feeding mollusks is necessary to determine important ecosystem interactions of offshore shellfish farms, including their carrying capacity, the competition with the zooplankton community, the availability of trophic resources at different depths, and the deposition to the benthos. The biodeposition method is used to quantify feeding variables in suspension-feeding bivalves in a natural setting and represents a more realistic proxy than laboratory experiments. This method, however, relies upon a stable platform to satisfy the requirements that water flow rates supplied to the shellfish remain constant and the bivalves are undisturbed. A flow-through device and process for using the biodeposition method to quantify the feeding of bivalve mollusks were modified from a land-based format for shipboard use by building a two-dimensional gimbal table around the device. Planimeter data reveal a minimal pitch and yaw of the chambers containing the test shellfish despite boat motion, the flow rates within the chambers remain constant, and operators are able to collect the biodeposits (feces and pseudofeces) with sufficient consistency to obtain accurate measurements of the bivalve clearance, filtration, selection, ingestion, rejection, and absorption at offshore shellfish aquaculture sites.

A flow-through device for using the biodeposition method to quantify filtration and feeding behavior of bivalve mollusks was modified for shipboard use. A two-dimensional gimbal table built around the device isolates the apparatus from boat motion, thereby allowing the accurate quantification of bivalve filtration variables at offshore shellfish aquaculture sites.

Gestaltung und Nutzung eines Apparates zur Quantifizierung der zweischaligen Suspension Fütterung auf hoher See

As shellfish aquaculture moves from coastal embayments and estuaries to offshore locations, the need to quantify ecosystem interactions of farmed bivalves ...

Construction of a Low-cost Mobile Incubator for Field and Laboratory Use

Incubators are essential for a range of culture-based microbial methods, such as membrane filtration followed by cultivation for assessing drinking water quality. However, commercially available incubators are often costly, difficult to transport, not flexible in terms of volume, and/or poorly adapted to local field conditions where access to electricity is unreliable. The purpose of this study was to develop an adaptable, low-cost and transportable incubator that can be constructed using readily available components. The electronic core of the incubator was first developed. These components were then tested under a range of ambient temperature conditions (3.5 &#176;C - 39 &#176;C) using three types of incubator shells (polystyrene foam box, hard cooler box, and cardboard box covered with a survival blanket). The electronic core showed comparable performance to a standard laboratory incubator in terms of the time required to reach the set temperature, inner temperature stability and spatial dispersion, power consumption, and microbial growth. The incubator set-ups were also effective at moderate and low ambient temperatures (between 3.5 &#176;C and 27 &#176;C), and at high temperatures (39 &#176;C) when the incubator set temperature was higher. This incubator prototype is low-cost (&lt; 300 USD) and adaptable to a variety of materials and volumes. Its demountable structure makes it easy to transport. It can be used in both established laboratories with grid power or in remote settings powered by solar energy or a car battery. It is particularly useful as an equipment option for field laboratories in areas with limited access to resources for water quality monitoring.

This paper describes a method for building an adaptable, low-cost and transportable incubator for microbial testing of drinking water. Our design is based on widely available materials and can operate under a range of field conditions, while still offering the advantages of higher-end laboratory-based models.

Bau eines Low-Cost mobilen Inkubator für Feld und Labor

Incubators are essential for a range of culture-based microbial methods, such as membrane filtration followed by cultivation for assessing drinking water ...

Combining Eye-tracking Data with an Analysis of Video Content from Free-viewing a Video of a Walk in an Urban Park Environment

As individuals increasingly live in cities, methods to study their everyday movements and the data that can be collected becomes important and valuable. Eye-tracking informatics are known to connect to a range of feelings, health conditions, mental states and actions. But because vision is the result of constant eye-movements, teasing out what is important from what is noise is complex and data intensive. Furthermore, a significant challenge is controlling for what people look at compared to what is presented to them.
The following presents a methodology for combining and analyzing eye-tracking on a video of a natural and complex scene with a machine learning technique for analyzing the content of the video. In the protocol we focus on analyzing data from filmed videos, how a video can be best used to record participants&#39; eye-tracking data, and importantly how the content of the video can be analyzed and combined with the eye-tracking data. We present a brief summary of the results and a discussion of the potential of the method for further studies in complex environments.

The objective of the protocol is to detail how to collect video data for use in the laboratory; how to record eye-tracking data of participants looking at the data and how to efficiently analyze the content of the videos that they were looking at using a machine learning technique.

Die Kombination von Eye-Tracking-Daten mit einer Analyse von Video-Inhalten aus dem Free-Viewing eines Videos von einem Walk in einer urbanen Park-Umgebung

As individuals increasingly live in cities, methods to study their everyday movements and the data that can be collected becomes important and valuable. ...

Sampling Soils in a Heterogeneous Research Plot

Soils are highly heterogeneous. In general, the number of soil samples required for soil research has always been determined arbitrarily and the associated accuracy is unknown. Here, we present a detailed protocol for efficient and clustered soil sampling in a research plot and, relying on a pilot sampling using this design, for demonstrating soil spatial heterogeneity and informing reasonable sample sizes and associated accuracy for future study. The protocol mainly comprises four steps: sampling design, field collection, soil analysis, and geostatistical analysis. The step-by-step procedure is modified according to former publications. Two examples will be presented to demonstrate contrasting spatial distributions of soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) under different management practices. In addition, we present a strategy to determine the sample size requirement (SSR) given a certain level of accuracy based on the plot-level coefficient of variation (CV). The field sampling protocol and the quantitative determination of the sample size will assist researchers in seeking feasible sampling strategies to meet research needs and resources' availability.

The traditional soil-sampling procedure determines the number of soil samples arbitrarily. Here, we provide a simple yet efficient clustered soil-sampling design to demonstrate soil spatial heterogeneity and quantitatively determine the number of soil samples required and the associated sampling accuracy.