We thank the imaging platform of the Institut de la Vision. We acknowledge the French Muscular Dystrophy Association (AFM) for a PhD fellowship to O.V. and Allergan INC. This work performed in the frame of the LABEX LIFESENSES [reference ANR-10-LABX-65] was supported by French state funds managed by the ANR. We thank Peggy Barbe, and M&#233;lissa Desrosiers for technical assistance with AAV preparations. We are grateful to St&#233;phane Fouquet for excellent technical assistance in confocal microscopy and his expert input with the interpretation of the results.

All animals used in this study were cared for and handled according to the ARVO Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research.
1. Production of Recombinant AAV (rAAV) by Transient Transfection of HEK-293 Cells17,18
NOTE: See McClure C, JoVE (2011)19.
<ol>
	<li>Purify a large-scale plasmid preparation (at least 1 mg/ml) of the AAV vector plasmids. Use 3 plasmids. The AAV helper plasmid carrying the replication and capsid g...

<ol>
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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporary+disruption+of+the+retinal+basal+lamina+and+its+effect+on+retinal+histogenesis.">Temporary disruption of the retinal basal lamina and its effect on retinal histogenesis.</a> Dev Biol. 238 (1), 79-96 (2001).</li><li>Halfter, W., Willem, M., Mayer, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Basement+membrane-dependent+survival+of+retinal+ganglion+cells.">Basement membrane-dependent survival of retinal ganglion cells.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 46 (3), 1000-1009 (2005).</li><li>Abdelkader, E., Lois, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Internal+limiting+membrane+peeling+in+vitreo-retinal+surgery.">Internal limiting membrane peeling in vitreo-retinal surgery.</a> Surv Ophthalmol. 53 (4), 368-396 (2008).</li><li>Dalkara, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inner+limiting+membrane+barriers+to+AAV-mediated+retinal+transduction+from+the+vitreous.">Inner limiting membrane barriers to AAV-mediated retinal transduction from the vitreous.</a> Mol Ther. 17 (12), 2096-2102 (2009).</li><li>Bringmann, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muller+cells+in+the+healthy+and+diseased+retina.">Muller cells in the healthy and diseased retina.</a> Prog Retin Eye Res. 25 (4), 397-424 (2006).</li><li>Eichler, W., Kuhrt, H., Hoffmann, S., Wiedemann, P., Reichenbach, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VEGF+release+by+retinal+glia+depends+on+both+oxygen+and+glucose+supply.">VEGF release by retinal glia depends on both oxygen and glucose supply.</a> Neuroreport. 11 (16), 3533-3537 (2000).</li><li>Kaur, C., Foulds, W. 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T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+evolution+of+adeno-associated+virus+for+enhanced+glial+gene+delivery.">Molecular evolution of adeno-associated virus for enhanced glial gene delivery.</a> Mol Ther. 17 (12), 2088-2095 (2009).</li><li>Klimczak, R. R., Koerber, J. T., Dalkara, D., Flannery, J. G., Schaffer, D. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+adeno-associated+viral+variant+for+efficient+and+selective+intravitreal+transduction+of+rat+Muller+cells.">A novel adeno-associated viral variant for efficient and selective intravitreal transduction of rat Muller cells.</a> PLoS One. 4 (10), e7467 (2009).</li><li>Vacca, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AAV-mediated+gene+delivery+in+Dp71-null+mouse+model+with+compromised+barriers.">AAV-mediated gene delivery in Dp71-null mouse model with compromised barriers.</a> Glia. , (2013).</li><li>Choi, V. W., Asokan, A., Haberman, R. A., Samulski, R. 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The BRB regulates the exchange of molecules between blood and retina. Its breakdown is associated with various diseases such as diabetic retinopathy or age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We recently showed that in a dystrophin knock-out mouse, which displays permeable BRB, the retina becomes more permissive to gene delivery mediated by adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV). However, despite BRB permeability AAV particles injected intraocularly stay confined to the ocular compartment in this model. Our results indicat...

M&#252;ller cells are the major glial component of the retina. Morphologically, they span the retina radially and their endfeet, in contact with the vitreous, face the ILM and secret components of the latter. The ILM is a basement membrane composed of about ten different extracellular matrix proteins (laminin, agrin, perlecan, nidogen, collagen and several heparin sulfate proteoglycans). During development, its presence is indispensable for retinal histogenesis, navigation of optic axons, and&#160;survival of ganglion cells1-3. However, ILM is unessential in adult retina and can be surgically removed in certain pathologies without causing retinal damage4. In gene therapy, this membrane becomes a physical barrier for efficient transduction of the retina using AAVs by intravitreal injection5.
Through the extensive arborization of their processes, M&#252;ller cells provide nutritional and regulatory support to both retinal neurons and vascular cells. M&#252;ller cells are also involved in the regulation of the retinal homeostasis, in the formation and maintenance of the BRB6. Tight junctions between retinal capillary endothelial cells, M&#252;ller cells, astrocytes and pericytes form the BRB. BRB prevents certain substances from entering the retina.In many diseases like diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion and respiratory diseases, hypoxia of the retina causes leakage through the BRB7-9. This rupture is associated with an increase in vascular permeability leading to vasogenic edema, retinal detachment and retinal damage.
M&#252;ller cells are tightly associated with blood vessels and the basement membrane, playing an important role in both BRB and ILM integrity. Consequently, labeling M&#252;ller glial cells is particularly relevant to the study of the physical state of these retinal barriers.
Classically, BRB permeability is measured using the Evans blue assay consisting of systemic injection of Evans blue dye, which binds non-covalently to plasma albumin. This assay measures the albumin leakage (protein of intermediate size, ~66 kDa) from blood vessels into the retina (see Protocols Section 5)10. Alternatively, the vascular leakage can be visualized by fluorescence retinal angiography attesting for leakage of fluorescein (small molecule, ~359 Da; see Protocols Section 6)11. Nevertheless, both methods allow evaluation of the BRB permeability to small molecules and proteins but they do not provide information about the ILM integrity.
Hence, to study BRB permeability, we used an AAV based method that gives information on the BRB permeability to larger molecules (e.g., AAV particles, 25 nm diameter). Indeed, our method can detect presence of AAV transgene in the blood, which would suggest that ~25 nm diameter particles would be able to infiltrate into the bloodstream. This method also provides information on the structure of the ILM and extracellular matrix proteins in pathological conditions. Two AAV variants are useful for such study: AAV5 and ShH10. Subretinally injected, AAV5 has a natural tropism for photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium12 but it cannot get across to the outer retina when administered into the vitreous in wild-type retinas with intact ILM5,13. ShH10 is an AAV variant that has been engineered to specifically target glial cells over neurons14,15. ShH10 selectively labels M&#252;ller cells in both healthy and diseased retinas with increased efficiency in retinas with compromised barriers16. These viral tools coupled with immuhistochemistry and blood-DNA analysis provide information on the state of retinal barriers and their involvement in disease (Figure 1).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="643">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">C57BL6J mice strain</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">JANVIER LABS</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>mice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Ketamine 500</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Virbac France</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>anesthetic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Xylazine Rompun 2%</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Bayer Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>anesthetic</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Neosynephrine 5% Faure</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Europhta</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>dilatant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Mydriaticum 0,5%</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Thea</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>dilatant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Sterdex</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Novartis</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>anti-inflammatory</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Cryomatrix embedding resin</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">6769006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Superfrost Plus Adhesion Slides</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10143352</td>
			<td>slides</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">anti-laminin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L9393</td>
			<td>antibody</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">anti-rhodopsin clone 4D2&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MABN15</td>
			<td>antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">anti-glutamine synthetase clone GS-6&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MAB302</td>
			<td>antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Anti-Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Dako</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">334</td>
			<td>antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">PNA Lectin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L32459</td>
			<td>probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Alexa fluor conjugated secondary antibodies&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Fluorsave reagent</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Calbiochem</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">345789</td>
			<td>mounting medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">QIAmp DNA Micro Kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">QIAGEN</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">56304</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">GoTaq DNA polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M3001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Evans Blue dye&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E2129&#160;</td>
			<td>dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">5 &#181;m filter&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Sodium Citrate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S1804</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Citric acid&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C1909-2.5KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Formamide spectrophotometric&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">295876-2L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Fluorescein</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F2456&#160;</td>
			<td>dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="126">
			<td height="126" style="height:126px;width:225px;">Micron III</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Phoenix Research Labs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Microscopy system based on 3-CCD color camera, frame grabber, and off-the-shelf software enables researchers to image mouse retinas.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Insulin Syringes</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Terumo</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SS30M3109&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:193px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Syringe 10 &#181;l Hamilton</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Dutscher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">74487</td>
			<td>Seringue 1701</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Needle RN G33, 25 mm, PST 2&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11530332</td>
			<td>Intravitreal Injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:225px;">UltraMicroPump UMP3</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:107px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UMP3</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Versatile injector uses microsyringes to deliver picoliter volumes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">UltraMicroPump (UMP3) (one) with SYS-Micro4 Controller</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UMP3-1</td>
			<td>Digital controller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:225px;">Binocular magnifier SZ76</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">ADVILAB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ADV-76B2</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Zoom 0.66 x 5 x LEDs with stand epi and dia / Retinas dissection</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Spring scissors straight - 8,5cm</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:107px;">Bionic France S.a.r.l</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15003-08</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:193px;">Retinas dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Micro-ciseaux de Vannas courbe</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15004-08</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:225px;">Pince Dumont 5</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11254-20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Veriti 96-Well Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Life technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">4375786</td>
			<td>Thermocycler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:225px;">Ultrasonic cleaner&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Laboratory Supplies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G1125P1T</td>
			<td></td>
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using adeno-associated virus as a tool to study retinal barriers in disease

M&#252;ller cells are the principal glial cells of the retina. Their end-feet form the limits of the retina at the outer and inner limiting membranes (ILM), and in conjunction with astrocytes, pericytes and endothelial cells they establish the blood-retinal barrier (BRB). BRB limits material transport between the bloodstream and the retina while the ILM acts as a basement membrane that defines histologically the border between the retina and the vitreous cavity. Labeling M&#252;ller cells is particularly relevant to study the physical state of the retinal barriers, as these cells are an integral part of the BRB and ILM. Both BRB and ILM are frequently altered in retinal disease and are responsible for disease symptoms.
There are several well-established methods to study the integrity of the BRB, such as the Evans blue assay or fluorescein angiography. However these methods do not provide information on the extent of BRB permeability to larger molecules, in nanometer range. Furthermore, they do not provide information on the state of other retinal barriers such as the ILM. To study BRB permeability alongside retinal ILM, we used an AAV based method that provides information on permeability of BRB to larger molecules while indicating the state of the ILM and extracellular matrix proteins in disease states. Two AAV variants are useful for such study: AAV5 and ShH10. AAV5&#160;has a natural tropism for photoreceptors but it cannot get across to the outer retina when administered into the vitreous when the ILM is intact (i.e., in wild-type retinas). ShH10 has a strong tropism towards glial cells and will selectively label M&#252;ller glia in both healthy and diseased retinas. ShH10 provides more efficient gene delivery in retinas where ILM is compromised. These viral tools coupled with immunohistochemistry and blood-DNA analysis shed light onto the state of retinal barriers in disease.

We expect increased retinal transduction of M&#252;ller glial cells using ShH10 if the animal model shows perturbations in the structure of the ILM (Figure 2A-B). For example, we have shown that in absence of Dp71,&#160;ShH10 targets specifically but more efficiently M&#252;ller glial cells by intravitreal injection, indicating increased permeability of the ILM in this mouse line compared to wild-type mice16 (Figure 2C-F).
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Adeno-associated Virus as a Tool to Study Retinal Barriers in Disease at JoVE.com

Using Adeno-associated Virus as a Tool to Study Retinal Barriers in Disease

To investigate the blood-retinal barrier permeability and the inner limiting membrane integrity in animal models of retinal disease, we used several adeno-associated virus (AAV) variants as tools to label retinal neurons and glia. Virus mediated reporter gene expression is then used as an indicator of retinal barrier permeability.

M&#252;ller cells are the principal glial cells of the retina. Their end-feet form the limits of the retina at the outer and inner limiting membranes ...

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JoVE Journal

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14.9K vistas.  Sorbonne Universtés, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 968. To investigate the blood-retinal barrier permeability and the inner limiting membrane integrity in animal models of retinal disease, we used several adeno-associated virus (AAV) variants as tools to label retinal neurons and glia. Virus mediated reporter gene expression is then used as an indicator of retinal barrier permeability.