This work was supported by National Science Foundation grant MCB-0951199, and in part by the NIH grant EY01910, California Institute of Regenerative Medicine grants RB1-01417 and by the Funda&#231;&#227;o para a Ci&#234;ncia e Tecnologia (FCT) grant SFRH/BD/87256/2012.

1. Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of ion-selective microelectrode
	<ol>
		<li>Heat pull thin walled borosilicate capillaries without filament (1.5 mm outer diameter, 1.12 mm inner diameter) using a microelectrode puller. 
		Note: This gives tips 3-4 &#181;m in diameter. Smaller tips have higher resistance which makes microelectrodes more susceptible to electronic noise and is also associated with a slower response to a change in ion concentration. Useful information...

The most critical steps for successful measurement of extracellular ion fluxes in vivo are: the reduction of the noise, the correct fabrication of the ion-selective microelectrodes and reference electrode, and the positioning of the sample and both electrodes.
In order to minimize the noise, the recording system should be in an earthed (grounded) Faraday cage preferably with a metal-topped (vibration isolation) table which is also earthed. In addition, the microscope chassis should al...

All animal cells are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane which separates the cytoplasm from the outside environment. The cell maintains an electrical membrane potential, negative inside, by active transport of ions1. The membrane potential is a stored energy source which the cell can utilize to operate various molecular devices in the membrane2. Neurons and other excitable cells have large membrane potentials. Rapid opening of sodium channels collapses the membrane potential (depolarization) and produces the action potential which is transported along the length of the neuron2. Aside from these rapid electrical changes, many tissues and organs generate and maintain significant long-term electrical potentials. For example, skin and corneal epithelia generate and maintain trans-epithelial potentials and extracellular electric currents by directional pumping of ions (mainly sodium and chloride)3.
While measurements of endogenous extracellular electric current using the vibrating probe4-6 and measurements of membrane or trans-epithelial potentials using the microelectrode system7-10 allow measurement of the electric parameters of cell membranes and epithelial cell layers, they give no indication of the ion species involved.
Microelectrodes with selective ionophore can measure specific ion concentration in solution. Ion gradients or flux could be measured with two or more electrodes at different positions. However, the intrinsic voltage drift of each probe would be different, causing inaccurate measurements or even detection of a gradient that was not present. A single electrode used in &#8220;self-referencing&#8221; mode whereby it moves at low frequency between two points solves this problem. Now the ion flux can be seen against the background of a relatively slow and stable signal drift (see Figure 3B).
The ion-sensitive measuring system uses ion-selective self-referencing microelectrodes to detect small extracellular fluxes of ions close to tissues or single cells. The system consists of an amplifier which processes the signal from the microelectrode and a micro stepper motor and driver to control the motion of the microelectrode. The ion-selective microelectrode and the reference electrode that close the circuit are connected to the amplifier via a headstage pre-amplifier (Figure 1A). Computer software determines the parameters of the microelectrode movement (frequency, distance) and also records the output of the amplifier. The stepper motor controls the microelectrode movement via a three-dimensional micropositioner. A low frequency vibrating ion-selective microelectrode was first developed in 1990 to measure specific calcium flux11. As well as calcium, commercially accessible ionophore cocktails are now available to make microelectrodes sensitive to sodium, chloride, potassium, hydrogen, magnesium, nitrate, ammonium, fluoride, lithium or mercury.
Basically, the self-referencing ion-selective microelectrode technique converts the activity of a specific ion dissolved in a solution into an electric potential, which can be measured by a voltmeter. The ionophore cocktail is an immiscible liquid (organic, lipophilic) phase with ion-exchange properties. The ionophore selectively complexes (binds) specific ions reversibly and transfers them between the aqueous solution contained in the microelectrode (electrolyte) and the aqueous solution in which the microelectrode is immersed (Figure 1D). This ion transfer leads to an electrochemical equilibrium and a variation of the electric potential between the microelectrode and the reference electrode is measured by the voltmeter. The voltage is proportional to the logarithm of the specific ion activity according to the Nernst equation allowing the calculation of the ion concentration (Figure 2A and B).
At present, several systems allow measurement of ion flux using a similar concept or principle. For example, the Scanning Ion-selective Electrode Technique (SIET)12,13 or the Microelectrode Ion Flux Estimation (MIFE) technique developed by Newman and Shabala14-16 are commercially available and widely used by the research community in order to determine specific ion fluxes occurring at cell membrane and tissue across a variety of animal, plant and single living cell models. Ion-selective microelectrodes have been used to measure hydrogen, potassium and calcium flux across plant roots17, chloride flux in rat cerebral arteries18 and in pollen tubes19, hydrogen flux in skate retinal cells20, calcium flux in mouse bone21, various ion fluxes in fungal hyphae22 and in rat cornea23, and finally calcium flux during single cell wound healing12,24. See also the following review for detailed information on ion-selective self-referencing microelectrodes25.
The following article describes in detail how to prepare and perform measurement of endogenous extracellular ion fluxes using the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode technique at the single cell level.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>IonAmp&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA</td>
			<td>none</td>
			<td>amplifier created by the BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA; Similar system can be purchased from &#8220;XBL function matters&#8221; (http://www.xuyue.org/) or from &#8220;YoungerUSA&#8221; (http://www.youngerusa.com/) or from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IonAmp32&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA</td>
			<td>none</td>
			<td>software created by the BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA; Similar system can be purchased from &#8220;XBL function matters&#8221; (http://www.xuyue.org/) or from &#8220;YoungerUSA&#8221; (http://www.youngerusa.com/) or from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headstage pre-amplifier</td>
			<td>&#160;BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA</td>
			<td>INA116</td>
			<td>BSR Voltage Follower INA116, designed by the BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA; Similar system can be purchased from &#8220;XBL function matters&#8221; (http://www.xuyue.org/) or from &#8220;YoungerUSA&#8221; (http://www.youngerusa.com/) or from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MicroStep Driver</td>
			<td>&#160;BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA</td>
			<td>none</td>
			<td>three MicroStep drivers are required for X, Y and Z-positioning; created by the BioCurrents Research Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA; Similar system can be purchased from &#8220;XBL function matters&#8221; (http://www.xuyue.org/) or from &#8220;YoungerUSA&#8221; (http://www.youngerusa.com/) or from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manual micropositioner&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>Model KITE-R</td>
			<td>Similar system can be purchased from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic stand&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>Model M10</td>
			<td>Similar system can be purchased from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibration isolation table&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Newport Inc.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Model VW-3036-OPT-023040</td>
			<td>Similar system can be purchased from Applicable Electronics(http://www.applicableelectronics.com/)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Part of three dimentional micropositioner: angle bracket, 90&#176;, slotted faces</td>
			<td>Newport Inc.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Model 360-90</td>
			<td>Assemblage of the three dimantionnal micropositionner requires also Three electric rotary motors for X, Y, Z control, MPH-1 mounting arm with MCA-2 adjustable-angle post and Various Newport connectors and screws to bolt onto vibration table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Part of three dimentional micropositioner: Peg-Joining Dovetail Stage 0.5 inch X Travel</td>
			<td>Newport Inc.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>460PD-X</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Part of three dimentional micropositioner: Quick-Mount Linear Stage, 0.5 inch XY Travel</td>
			<td>Newport Inc.</td>
			<td>460A-XY</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kwik-Fil thin walled borosilicate glass capillaries without filament&#160;</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>TW150-4</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode puller&#160;</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>&#160;PC-10</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal rack</td>
			<td>Made in-house</td>
			<td>none</td>
			<td>Metal electrode holder made in-house by drilling 2 mm wide holes half centimeter spaced in a 10cm by 15cm rectangular base of steel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oven</td>
			<td>QL</td>
			<td>Model 10 Lab Oven</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silanization solution I&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>85126</td>
			<td>Hazardous, handle as recommended by provider&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Petri dish; Pyrex</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>316060</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode/micropipette storage jar</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>E215</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass dessicator</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-595E</td>
			<td>Contains Drierite dessicant (W.A. Hammond Drierite Co. Ltd, Xenia, OH, USA). Place petroleum jelly on the seal to make it airtight.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic Pasteur pipette&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11597722</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bunsen burner</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S97329</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8902</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight microelectrode holder</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>QSW-A15P</td>
			<td>with a gold 1 mm male connector and Ag/AgCl wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight microelectrode holder&#160;</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MEH3S</td>
			<td>with a AgCl(Ag+)pellet inside and a gold 2 mm male connector&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 cm Petri dish</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>60872-306</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitex mesh</td>
			<td>Dynamic Aqua-Supply Ltd.</td>
			<td>NTX750</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glue; Loctite epoxy</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>500043-451</td>
			<td>Mix glue and hardener in equal parts in a plastic weighing boat and mix thoroughly. Sets quickly but leave at RT for 24 h for full curing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>99053</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9333</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1016</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hepes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxyde</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8045</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1190</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9539</td>
			<td>none</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measurement of extracellular ion fluxes using the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode technique

Cells from animals, plants and single cells are enclosed by a barrier called the cell membrane that separates the cytoplasm from the outside. Cell layers such as epithelia also form a barrier that separates the inside from the outside or different compartments of multicellular organisms. A key feature of these barriers is the differential distribution of ions across cell membranes or cell layers. Two properties allow this distribution: 1) membranes and epithelia display selective permeability to specific ions; 2) ions are transported through pumps across cell membranes and cell layers. These properties play crucial roles in maintaining tissue physiology and act as signaling cues after damage, during repair, or under pathological condition. The ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode allows measurements of specific fluxes of ions such as calcium, potassium or sodium at single cell and tissue levels. The microelectrode contains an ionophore cocktail which is selectively permeable to a specific ion. The internal filling solution contains a set concentration of the ion of interest. The electric potential of the microelectrode is determined by the outside concentration of the ion. As the ion concentration varies, the potential of the microelectrode changes as a function of the log of the ion activity. When moved back and forth near a source or sink of the ion (i.e. in a concentration gradient due to ion flux) the microelectrode potential fluctuates at an amplitude proportional to the ion flux/gradient. The amplifier amplifies the microelectrode signal and the output is recorded on computer. The ion flux can then be calculated by Fick&#8217;s law of diffusion using the electrode potential fluctuation, the excursion of microelectrode, and other parameters such as the specific ion mobility. In this paper, we describe in detail the methodology to measure extracellular ion fluxes using the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode and present some representative results.

We have previously shown that calcium influx appears after single cell wounding24. We therefore asked whether other ion fluxes occur upon single cell wounding. We used the X. laevis oocyte, a well-established model for single cell wound healing30-34 and electrophysiological recording24,35-39. Interestingly, potassium ions are more concentrated inside X. laevis oocytes (about 110 mM)40 than in the extracellular solution used (in MMR 1x: 1 mM) suggesting an effl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of Extracellular Ion Fluxes Using the Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Technique at JoVE.com

Measurement of Extracellular Ion Fluxes Using the Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Technique

Transporters in cell membranes allow differential segregation of ions across cell membranes or cell layers and play crucial roles during tissue physiology, repair and pathology. We describe the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode that allows the measurement of specific ion fluxes at single cells and tissues in vivo.

Cells from animals, plants and single cells are enclosed by a barrier called the cell membrane that separates the cytoplasm from the outside. Cell layers ...

measurement-extracellular-ion-fluxes-using-ion-selective-self

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

13.8K vistas.  University of California, Davis. Transporters in cell membranes allow differential segregation of ions across cell membranes or cell layers and play crucial roles during tissue physiology, repair and pathology. We describe the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode that allows the measurement of specific ion fluxes at single cells and tissues in vivo.

Video: Measurement of Extracellular Ion Fluxes Using the Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Technique

Transporters in cell membranes allow differential segregation of ions across cell membranes or cell layers and play crucial roles during tissue physiology, repair and pathology. We describe the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode that allows the measurement of specific ion fluxes at single cells and tissues in...

double-barreled and concentric microelectrodes for measurement of extracellular ion signals in brain tissue

Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue

We demonstrate the fabrication, calibration and properties of two types of ion-selective microelectrodes (double-barreled and concentric) for measurement of ion concentrations in brain tissue. These are then used in the mouse hippocampal slice preparation to show that excitatory activity changes both extracellular potassium and sodium concentrations.

making, testing, and using potassium ion selective microelectrodes in tissue slices of adult brain

Making, Testing, and Using Potassium Ion Selective Microelectrodes in Tissue Slices of Adult Brain

Potassium ions contribute&#160;to the resting membrane potential of cells and extracellular K+ concentration is a crucial regulator of cellular excitability. We describe how to make, calibrate and use monopolar K+-selective microelectrodes. Using such electrodes enables the measurement of electrically evoked K+ concentration dynamics in adult hippocampal...

fluorescent nanoparticles for the measurement of ion concentration in biological systems

Fluorescent Nanoparticles for the Measurement of Ion Concentration in Biological Systems

Fluorescent nanoparticles produced in our lab are used for imaging ion concentrations and ion fluxes in biological systems such as cells during signaling and interstitial fluid during physiological...

measurement of ion concentration in the unstirred boundary layer with open patch-clamp pipette: implications in control of ion channels by fluid flow

Measurement of Ion Concentration in the Unstirred Boundary Layer with Open Patch-Clamp Pipette: Implications in Control of Ion Channels by Fluid Flow

Mechanosensitive ion channels are often studied in terms of fluid flow/shear force sensitivity with patch-clamp recording. However, depending on the experimental protocol, the outcome on fluid flow-regulations of ion channels can be erroneous. Here, we provide methods for preventing and correcting such errors with a theoretical...

using a cyclic ion mobility spectrometer for tandem ion mobility experiments

Using a Cyclic Ion Mobility Spectrometer for Tandem Ion Mobility Experiments

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is an interesting complement to mass spectrometry for the characterization of biomolecules, notably because it is sensitive to isomerism. This protocol describes a tandem IMS (IMS/IMS) experiment, which allows the isolation of a molecule and the generation of the mobility profiles of its fragments.

measurement of evoked potassium ion concentration dynamics in coronal hippocampal slices

The video demonstrates evoked potassium ion concentration dynamics on electrical stimulation of mouse coronal hippocampal brain slices. A bipolar stimulating electrode is inserted into the stratum radiatum of the CA3 region in the hippocampus, and a potassium-ion selective electrode is placed in the CA1 stratum radiatum. The electrical stimulation causes an action potential, resulting in potassium ion release. Finally, the lack of evoked potassium ion response in the presence of an inhibitory...

Measurement of Evoked Potassium Ion Concentration Dynamics in Coronal Hippocampal Slices

characterization of electrode materials for lithium ion and sodium ion batteries using synchrotron radiation techniques

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of...

merging ion concentration polarization between juxtaposed ion exchange membranes to block the propagation of the polarization zone

Merging Ion Concentration Polarization between Juxtaposed Ion Exchange Membranes to Block the Propagation of the Polarization Zone

The protocol for a novel ion concentration polarization (ICP) platform that can stop the propagation of the ICP zone, regardless of the operating conditions is described. This unique ability of the platform lies in the use of merging ion depletion and enrichment, which are two polarities of the ICP...

focused ion beam fabrication of lipon-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries for in situ testing

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

ion-exchange membranes for the fabrication of reverse electrodialysis device

Ion-Exchange Membranes for the Fabrication of Reverse Electrodialysis Device

We demonstrate the fabrication of a reverse electrodialysis device using a cation-exchange membrane (CEM) and anion-exchange membrane (AEM) for power...

multi-analyte biochip (mab) based on all-solid-state ion-selective electrodes (assise) for physiological research

Multi-analyte Biochip MAB Based on All-solid-state Ion-selective Electrodes ASSISE for Physiological Research

All-solid-state ion-selective electrodes (ASSISEs) constructed from a conductive polymer (CP) transducer provide several months of functional lifetime in liquid media. Here, we describe the fabrication and calibration process of ASSISEs in a lab-on-a-chip format. The ASSISE is demonstrated to have maintained a near-Nernstian slope profile after prolonged storage in complex biological...

Multi-analyte Biochip (MAB) Based on All-solid-state Ion-selective Electrodes (ASSISE) for Physiological Research

recapitulation of an ion channel iv curve using frequency components

Recapitulation of an Ion Channel IV Curve Using Frequency Components

There are technical obstacles to measuring current flux through multiple ion channels simultaneously, and later discerning what portion of the transmembrane current is due to each channel type.  To address this need, this method presents a way to generate the IV curve of individual channel types using specific frequency...

ohmic contact fabrication using a focused-ion beam technique and electrical characterization for layer semiconductor nanostructures

Ohmic Contact Fabrication Using a Focused-ion Beam Technique and Electrical Characterization for Layer Semiconductor Nanostructures

We describe the approaches for the device fabrication and electrical characterization of molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer semiconductor nanostructures with different thicknesses. In addition, the fabrication of ohmic contacts for MoSe2-layer nanocrystals by the focused-ion beam deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal is described.

functional assessment of intestinal tight junction barrier and ion permeability in native tissue by ussing chamber technique

Functional Assessment of Intestinal Tight Junction Barrier and Ion Permeability in Native Tissue by Ussing Chamber Technique

Intestinal epithelium confers not only nutrient absorption but protection against noxious substances. The apical-most epithelial intercellular junction, i.e., the tight junction, regulates paracellular solute and ion permeability. Here, a protocol for the preparation of mucosal sheets and assessment of the ion selectivity of tight junctions using Ussing chamber technique is...

Then, carefully insert the potassium ion-selective electrode into CA1 stratum radiatum to approximately 50 micrometers deep by slowly lowering the electrode over approximately 3 to 4 seconds. Allow the potential to stabilize across the electrode before applying stimulations to the slice, which usually takes 5 to 10 minutes. If the slice exhibits excessive spontaneous changes in extracellular potassium ion concentrations, discard and repeat the process with a new...

use of the ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion and ion flux rates in the drosophila melanogaster malpighian tubule

Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule

This protocol describes the use of the Ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion rates from isolated Malpighian (renal) tubules from Drosophila melanogaster. In addition, the use of ion-specific electrodes to measure sodium and potassium concentrations in the secreted fluid, allowing calculation of transepithelial ion flux, is...

Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule

thermochemical studies of ni(ii) and zn(ii) ternary complexes using ion mobility-mass spectrometry

Thermochemical Studies of NiII and ZnII Ternary Complexes Using Ion Mobility-Mass Spectrometry

This article describes an experimental protocol using electrospray-ion mobility-mass spectrometry, semi-empirical quantum calculations, and energy-resolved threshold collision-induced dissociation to measure the relative thermochemistry of the dissociation of related ternary metal...

Thermochemical Studies of Ni(II) and Zn(II) Ternary Complexes Using Ion Mobility-Mass Spectrometry

membrane remodeling of giant vesicles in response to localized calcium ion gradients

Membrane Remodeling of Giant Vesicles in Response to Localized Calcium Ion Gradients

We present a technique for contactless micromanipulation of vesicles, using localized calcium ion gradients. Microinjection of a calcium ion solution, in the vicinity of a giant lipid vesicle, is utilized to remodel the lipid membrane, resulting in the production of membrane tubular...

imaging corrosion at the metal-paint interface using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry

Imaging Corrosion at the Metal-Paint Interface Using Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry

Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry is applied to demonstrate the chemical mapping and corrosion morphology at the metal-paint interface of an aluminum alloy after being exposed to a salt solution compared with a specimen exposed to...

MALDI Sample Preparation: the Ultra Thin Layer Method

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) 1,2. The ultra-thin layer method involves the production of a substrate layer of matrix crystals (alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid) on the sample plate, which serves as a seeding ground for subsequent crystallization of a matrix/analyte mixture. Advantages of the ultra-thin layer method over other sample deposition approaches (e.g. dried droplet) are that it provides (i) greater tolerance to impurities such as salts and detergents, (ii) better resolution, and (iii) higher spatial uniformity. This method is especially useful for the accurate mass determination of proteins. The protocol was initially developed and optimized for the analysis of membrane proteins and used to successfully analyze ion channels, metabolite transporters, and receptors, containing between 2 and 12 transmembrane domains 2. Since the original publication, it has also shown to be equally useful for the analysis of soluble proteins. Indeed, we have used it for a large number of proteins having a wide range of properties, including those with molecular masses as high as 380 kDa 3. It is currently our method of choice for the molecular mass analysis of all proteins. The described procedure consistently produces high-quality spectra, and it is sensitive, robust, and easy to implement.

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS).

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption ...

INTRODUCTION: Presently, there are no established methods to measure multiple ion channel types simultaneously and decompose the measured current into portions attributable to each channel type. This study demonstrates how impedance spectroscopy may be used to identify specific frequencies that highly correlate with the steady state current amplitude measured during voltage clamp experiments. The method involves inserting a noise function containing specific frequencies into the voltage step protocol. In the work presented, a model cell is used to demonstrate that no high correlations are introduced by the voltage clamp circuitry, and also that the noise function itself does not introduce any high correlations when no ion channels are present. This validation is necessary before the technique can be applied to preparations containing ion channels. The purpose of the protocol presented is to demonstrate how to characterize the frequency response of a single ion channel type to a noise function. Once specific frequencies have been identified in an individual channel type, they can be used to reproduce the steady state current voltage (IV) curve. Frequencies that highly correlate with one channel type and minimally correlate with other channel types may then be used to estimate the current contribution of multiple channel types measured simultaneously.
METHODS: Voltage clamp measurements were performed on a model cell using a standard voltage step protocol (-150 to +50 mV, 5mV steps). Noise functions containing equal magnitudes of 1-15 kHz frequencies (zero to peak amplitudes: 50 or 100mV) were inserted into each voltage step. The real component of the Fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the output signal was calculated with and without noise for each step potential. The magnitude of each frequency as a function of voltage step was correlated with the current amplitude at the corresponding voltages.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of noise (control), magnitudes of all frequencies except the DC component correlated poorly (|R|&lt;0.5) with the IV curve, whereas the DC component had a correlation coefficient greater than 0.999 in all measurements. The quality of correlation between individual frequencies and the IV curve did not change when a noise function was added to the voltage step protocol. Likewise, increasing the amplitude of the noise function also did not increase the correlation. Control measurements demonstrate that the voltage clamp circuitry by itself does not cause any frequencies above 0 Hz to highly correlate with the steady-state IV curve. Likewise, measurements in the presence of the noise function demonstrate that the noise function does not cause any frequencies above 0 Hz to correlate with the steady-state IV curve when no ion channels are present. Based on this verification, the method can now be applied to preparations containing a single ion channel type with the intent of identifying frequencies whose amplitudes correlate specifically with that channel type.

There are technical obstacles to measuring current flux through multiple ion channels simultaneously, and later discerning what portion of the transmembrane current is due to each channel type. To address this need, this method presents a way to generate the IV curve of individual channel types using specific frequency components.

INTRODUCTION: Presently, there are no established methods to measure multiple ion channel types simultaneously and decompose the measured current into ...

Measuring Fast Calcium Fluxes in Cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to extracellular agents is predominantly regulated by the phospholipase C&beta;- G&alpha;q pathway localized on the plasma membrane which is stimulated by agents such as acetylcholine 3,4. We have recently found that plasma membrane protein domains called caveolae5,6 can entrap activated G&alpha;q 7. This entrapment has the effect of stabilizing the activated state of G&alpha;q and resulting in prolonged Ca2+ signals in cardiomyocytes and other cell types8. We uncovered this surprising result by measuring dynamic calcium responses on a fast scale in living cardiomyocytes. Briefly, cells are loaded with a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator. In our studies, we used Ca2+ Green (Invitrogen, Inc.) which exhibits an increase in fluorescence emission intensity upon binding of calcium ions. The fluorescence intensity is then recorded for using a line-scan mode of a laser scanning confocal microscope. This method allows rapid acquisition of the time course of fluorescence intensity in pixels along a selected line, producing several hundreds of time traces on the microsecond time scale. These very fast traces are transferred into excel and then into Sigmaplot for analysis, and are compared to traces obtained for electronic noise, free dye, and other controls. To dissect Ca2+ responses of different flux rates, we performed a histogram analysis that binned pixel intensities with time. Binning allows us to group over 500 traces of scans and visualize the compiled results spatially and temporally on a single plot. Thus, the slow Ca2+ waves that are difficult to discern when the scans are overlaid due to different peak placement and noise, can be readily seen in the binned histograms. Very fast fluxes in the time scale of the measurement show a narrow distribution of intensities in the very short time bins whereas longer Ca2+ waves show binned data with a broad distribution over longer time bins. These different time distributions allow us to dissect the timing of Ca2+fluxes in the cells, and to determine their impact on various cellular events.

We present a method to isolate rapid (microsecond) calcium events from slower fluxes in living cells using laser scanning confocal microscopy. The method measures fluorescence intensity fluctuations of calcium indicators by recording line scans of several hundred pixels in a cell. Histogram analysis allows us to isolate the time scales of different calcium fluxes.

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to ...

Quantitative Measurement of Invadopodia-mediated Extracellular Matrix Proteolysis in Single and Multicellular Contexts

Cellular invasion into local tissues is a process important in development and homeostasis. Malregulated invasion and subsequent cell movement is characteristic of multiple pathological processes, including inflammation, cardiovascular disease and tumor cell metastasis1. Focalized proteolytic degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) components in the epithelial or endothelial basement membrane is a critical step in initiating cellular invasion. In tumor cells, extensive in vitro analysis has determined that ECM degradation is accomplished by ventral actin-rich membrane protrusive structures termed invadopodia2,3. Invadopodia form in close apposition to the ECM, where they moderate ECM breakdown through the action of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The ability of tumor cells to form invadopodia directly correlates with the ability to invade into local stroma and associated vascular components3. 
Visualization of invadopodia-mediated ECM degradation of cells by fluorescent microscopy using dye-labeled matrix proteins coated onto glass coverslips has emerged as the most prevalent technique for evaluating the degree of matrix proteolysis and cellular invasive potential4,5. Here we describe a version of the standard method for generating fluorescently-labeled glass coverslips utilizing a commercially available Oregon Green-488 gelatin conjugate. This method is easily scaled to rapidly produce large numbers of coated coverslips. We show some of the common microscopic artifacts that are often encountered during this procedure and how these can be avoided. Finally, we describe standardized methods using readily available computer software to allow quantification of labeled gelatin matrix degradation mediated by individual cells and by entire cellular populations. The described procedures provide the ability to accurately and reproducibly monitor invadopodia activity, and can also serve as a platform for evaluating the efficacy of modulating protein expression or testing of anti-invasive compounds on extracellular matrix degradation in single and multicellular settings.

We describe the prototypical method for producing microscope coverslips coated with fluorescent gelatin for visualizing invadopodia-mediated matrix degradation. Computational techniques using available software are presented for quantifying the resultant levels of matrix proteolysis by single cells within a mixed population and for multicellular groups encompassing entire microscopic fields.

Cellular invasion into local tissues is a process important in development and homeostasis.  Malregulated invasion and subsequent cell movement is ...

Measurement of Metabolic Rate in Drosophila using Respirometry

Metabolic disorders are a frequent problem affecting human health. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate metabolism is a crucial scientific task. Many disease causing genes in humans have a fly homologue, making Drosophila a good model to study signaling pathways involved in the development of different disorders. Additionally, the tractability of Drosophila simplifies genetic screens to aid in identifying novel therapeutic targets that may regulate metabolism. In order to perform such a screen a simple and fast method to identify changes in the metabolic state of flies is necessary. In general, carbon dioxide production is a good indicator of substrate oxidation and energy expenditure providing information about metabolic state. In this protocol we introduce a simple method to measure CO2 output from flies. This technique can potentially aid in the identification of genetic perturbations affecting metabolic rate.

Measurement of Metabolic Rate in Drosophila using Respirometry

Metabolic disorders are among one of the most common diseases in humans. The genetically tractable model organism D. melanogaster can be used to identify novel genes that regulate metabolism. This paper describes a relatively simple method which allows studying the metabolic rate in flies by measuring their CO2 production.

Metabolic disorders are a frequent problem affecting human health. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate metabolism is a crucial ...

Functional Characterization of Na+/H+ Exchangers of Intracellular Compartments Using Proton-killing Selection to Express Them at the Plasma Membrane

Endosomal acidification is critical for a wide range of processes, such as protein recycling and degradation, receptor desensitization, and neurotransmitter loading in synaptic vesicles. This acidification is described to be mediated by proton ATPases, coupled to ClC chloride transporters. Highly-conserved electroneutral protons transporters, the Na+/H+ exchangers (NHE) 6, 7 and 9 are also expressed in these compartments. Mutations in their genes have been linked with human cognitive and neurodegenerative diseases. Paradoxically, their roles remain elusive, as their intracellular localization has prevented detailed functional characterization. This manuscript shows a method to solve this problem. This consists of the selection of mutant cell lines, capable of surviving acute cytosolic acidification by retaining intracellular NHEs at the plasma membrane. It then depicts two complementary protocols to measure the ion selectivity and activity of these exchangers: (i) one based on intracellular pH measurements using fluorescence video microscopy, and (ii) one based on the fast kinetics of lithium uptake. Such protocols can be extrapolated to measure other non-electrogenic transporters. Furthermore, the selection procedure presented here generates cells with an intracellular retention defective phenotype. Therefore these cells will also express other vesicular membrane proteins at the plasma membrane. The experimental strategy depicted here may therefore constitute a potentially powerful tool to study other intracellular proteins that will be then expressed at the plasma membrane together with the vesicular Na+/H+ exchangers used for the selection.

Functional Characterization of Na+/H+ Exchangers of Intracellular Compartments Using Proton-killing Selection to Express Them at the Plasma Membrane

The first part of this article shows how to select mutant cell lines expressing vesicular Na+/H+ exchangers at their plasma membrane. The second part provides protocols based on intracellular pH measurements and fast ion uptake, which are used to determine the ion selectivity and the kinetic parameters of these exchangers.

Endosomal acidification is critical for a wide range of processes, such as protein recycling and degradation, receptor desensitization, and ...

Techniques for the Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles Using Flow Cytometry

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-derived vesicles found in bodily fluids that are highly involved in cell-cell communication and help regulate a diverse range of biological processes. Analysis of EVs using flow cytometry (FCM) has been notoriously difficult due to their small size and lack of discrete populations positive for markers of interest. Methods for EV analysis, while considerably improved over the last decade, are still a work in progress. Unfortunately, there is no one-size-fits-all protocol, and several aspects must be considered when determining the most appropriate method to use. Presented here are several different techniques for processing EVs and two protocols for analyzing EVs using either individual detection or a bead-based approach. The methods described here will assist with eliminating the antibody aggregates commonly found in commercial preparations, increasing signal&#8211;to-noise ratio, and setting gates in a rational fashion that minimizes detection of background fluorescence. The first protocol uses an individual detection method that is especially well suited for analyzing a high volume of clinical samples, while the second protocol uses a bead-based approach to capture and detect smaller EVs and exosomes.

Many different methods exist for the measurement of extracellular vesicles (EVs) using flow cytometry (FCM). Several aspects should be considered when determining the most appropriate method to use. Two protocols for measuring EVs are presented, using either individual detection or a bead-based approach.

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-derived vesicles found in bodily fluids that are highly involved in cell-cell communication and help ...

Measurement and Analysis of Extracellular Acid Production to Determine Glycolytic Rate

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both mitochondrial (respiration) and non-mitochondrial (other redox) reactions consume oxygen, but these reactions can be easily distinguished by chemical inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. However, while mitochondrial oxygen consumption is an unambiguous and direct measurement of respiration rate2, the same is not true for extracellular acid production and its relationship to glycolytic rate 3-6. Extracellular acid produced by cells is derived from both lactate, produced by anaerobic glycolysis, and CO2, produced in the citric acid cycle during respiration. For glycolysis, the conversion of glucose to lactate- + H+ and the export of products into the assay medium is the source of glycolytic acidification. For respiration, the export of CO2, hydration to H2CO3 and dissociation to HCO3- + H+ is the source of respiratory acidification. The proportions of glycolytic and respiratory acidification depend on the experimental conditions, including cell type and substrate(s) provided, and can range from nearly 100% glycolytic acidification to nearly 100% respiratory acidification 6. Here, we demonstrate the data collection and calculation methods needed to determine respiratory and glycolytic contributions to total extracellular acidification by whole cells in culture using C2C12 myoblast cells as a model.

Glycolysis is a defining metabolic marker in multiple biological systems. Monitoring glycolysis by measuring the extracellular flux of H+ is common, but requires correction to be quantitative and unambiguous. Here, we demonstrate how to gather and correct extracellular flux data to distinguish between respiratory and glycolytic sources of extracellular acidification.

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both ...

Determination of the Relative Cell Surface and Total Expression of Recombinant Ion Channels Using Flow Cytometry

Inherited or de novo mutations in cation-selective channels may lead to sudden cardiac death. Alteration in the plasma membrane trafficking of these multi-spanning transmembrane proteins, with or without change in channel gating, is often postulated to contribute significantly in this process. It has thus become critical to develop a method to quantify the change of the relative cell surface expression of cardiac ion channels on a large scale. Herein, a detailed protocol is provided to determine the relative total and cell surface expression of cardiac L-type calcium channels CaV1.2 and membrane-associated subunits in tsA-201 cells using two-color fluorescent cytometry assays. Compared with other microscopy-based or immunoblotting-based qualitative methods, flow cytometry experiments are fast, reproducible, and large-volume assays that deliver quantifiable end-points on large samples of live cells (ranging from 104 to 106 cells) with similar cellular characteristics in a single flow. Constructs were designed to constitutively express mCherry at the intracellular C-terminus (thus allowing a rapid assessment of the total protein expression) and express an extracellular-facing hemagglutinin (HA) epitope to estimate the cell surface expression of membrane proteins using an anti-HA fluorescence conjugated antibody. To avoid false negative, experiments were also conducted in permeabilized cells to confirm the accessibility and proper expression of the HA epitope. The detailed procedure provides: (1) design of tagged DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) constructs, (2) lipid-mediated transfection of constructs in tsA-201 cells, (3) culture, harvest, and staining of non-permeabilized and permeabilized cells, and (4) acquisition and analysis of fluorescent signals. Additionally, the basic principles of flow cytometry are explained and the experimental design, including the choice of fluorophores, titration of the HA antibody and control experiments, is thoroughly discussed. This specific approach offers objective relative quantification of the total and cell surface expression of ion channels that can be extended to study ion pumps and plasma membrane transporters.

Inherited cardiac arrhythmias are often caused by mutations that alter the surface delivery of one or more ion channels. Here, we adapt flow cytometry assays to provide a quantification of the relative total and cell surface protein expression of recombinant ion channels expressed in tsA-201 cells.

Inherited or de novo mutations in cation-selective channels may lead to sudden cardiac death. Alteration in the plasma membrane trafficking of these ...

Establishment of an Extracellular Acidic pH Culture System

Conditions of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, play critical roles in cancer progression and malignancy. However, the role of acidic extracellular pH in tumor aggressiveness and its underlying mechanism has not been extensively studied compared to hypoxic or nutrient starvation conditions. In addition, a well-defined culture method to mimic the acidic extracellular tumor microenvironment has not been fully reported.
Here we present a simple in vitro culture method to maintain acidic extracellular pH using reduced bicarbonate and increased lactate or HCl concentrations in the culture medium. The medium pH was sustained for at least 24 h and gradually decreased by 72 h following culture of PANC-1 and AsPC-1 pancreatic cancer cells. Three distinct acidic media conditions in this study highly upregulated pH-responsive genes such as MSMO1, INSIG1, and IDI1 compared to hypoxia or nutrient starvation. The upregulation of these genes can be used as a marker of acidic pH. These simple techniques are beneficial to elucidate underlying mechanisms of tumor malignancy under acidic tumor microenvironment. Therefore, our extracellular acidic pH culture system enables discovery of cellular acidic pH responses not only in cancer cells but also in primary cells, such as renal tubular cells, in relation to the other acidic disorders including, diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal tubular acidosis, and respiratory acidosis.

The acidic tumor microenvironment plays critical roles in tumor progression. To assess the effects of acidic extracellular pH on cancer cells in vitro, we established simple acidic culture systems.

Conditions of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, play critical roles in cancer progression and malignancy. However, the ...