Los autores desean agradecer a C. Rodrigo para la asistencia técnica de expertos. Damos las gracias a S. Köhler (Centro de Advanced Imaging, Heinrich Heine Universidad Düsseldorf) para ayudar en la producción de vídeo. La investigación en el laboratorio del autor ha sido financiado por la Asociación Alemana de Investigación (DFG: Ro 2327 / 8-1 para CRR), la Universidad Heinrich Heine Düsseldorf (NH) y por los Institutos Nacionales de Salud de subvención R01NS032123 (MC).

<ol>
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D., Heinemann, U., Dietzel, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ionic+changes+and+alterations+in+the+size+of+the+extracellular+space+during+epileptic+activity.">Ionic changes and alterations in the size of the extracellular space during epileptic activity.</a> Adv Neurol. 44, 619-639 (1986).</li><li>Zanotto, L., Heinemann, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aspartate+and+glutamate+induced+reductions+in+extracellular+free+calcium+and+sodium+concentration+in+area+CA1+of+'in+vitro'+hippocampal+slices+of+rats.">Aspartate and glutamate induced reductions in extracellular free calcium and sodium concentration in area CA1 of 'in vitro' hippocampal slices of rats.</a> Neurosci Lett. 35, 79-84 (1983).</li><li>Borrelli, M. J., Carlini, W. G., Dewey, W. C., Ransom, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+method+for+making+ion-selective+microelectrodes+suitable+for+intracellular+recording+in+vertebrate+cells.">A simple method for making ion-selective microelectrodes suitable for intracellular recording in vertebrate cells.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 15, 141-154 (1985).</li><li>Ammann, D., Anker, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutral+carrier+sodium+ion-selective+microelectrode+for+extracellular+studies.">Neutral carrier sodium ion-selective microelectrode for extracellular studies.</a> Neurosci Lett. 57, 267-271 (1985).</li><li>Deitmer, J. W., Schlue, W. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+Na++and+Ca2++in+leech+Retzius+neurones+during+inhibition+of+the+Na+-K++pump.">Intracellular Na+ and Ca2+ in leech Retzius neurones during inhibition of the Na+-K+ pump.</a> Pflugers Arch. 397, 195-201 (1983).</li><li>Schwiening, C. J., Thomas, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relationship+between+intracellular+calcium+and+its+muffling+measured+by+calcium+iontophoresis+in+snail+neurones.">Relationship between intracellular calcium and its muffling measured by calcium iontophoresis in snail neurones.</a> J Physiol. 491 (Pt 3), 621-633 (1996).</li><li>Chesler, M., Kraig, R. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+pH+of+astrocytes+increases+rapidly+with+cortical+stimulation.">Intracellular pH of astrocytes increases rapidly with cortical stimulation.</a> Am J Physiol. 253, R666-R670 (1987).</li><li>Ammann, D., Chao, P. S., Simon, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Valinomycin-based+K++selective+microelectrodes+with+low+electrical+membrane+resistance.">Valinomycin-based K+ selective microelectrodes with low electrical membrane resistance.</a> Neurosci Lett. 74, 221-226 (1987).</li><li>Deitmer, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bicarbonate-dependent+changes+of+intracellular+sodium+and+pH+in+identified+leech+glial+cells.">Bicarbonate-dependent changes of intracellular sodium and pH in identified leech glial cells.</a> Pflugers Arch. 420, 584-589 (1992).</li><li>Lux, H. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+recording+ion+specific+microelectrodes:+their+use+in+pharmacological+studies+in+the+CNS.">Fast recording ion specific microelectrodes: their use in pharmacological studies in the CNS.</a> Neuropharmacology. 13, 509-517 (1974).</li><li>Nicholson, C., Phillips, J. 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The authors declare no competing interests.

Base líquida portadora, electrodos selectivos de iones se han empleado con éxito durante décadas y para muchos iones, sensores altamente específicos están disponibles 22-26 de. Cuando se utiliza en el espacio extracelular (ECS) de preparaciones de cerebro de vertebrados, hay que tener en cuenta, sin embargo, que se trata de una técnica muy invasiva: mientras que el ancho de la ECS sólo alrededor de 20 a 50 nm, el diámetro de ion-selectivo microelectrodos es de aproximadamente 1 m (electrodos de dos cañones) o grandes (electrodos concéntricos). Las puntas de microelectrodos selectivos de iones por lo tanto no sólo dañar el tejido durante su empalamiento del tejido, sino también ampliar el ECS, favoreciendo una subestimación de los transitorios de iones. A pesar de estas dificultades, los transitorios de iones extracelulares en respuesta a la actividad neuronal son notablemente consistente entre diferentes laboratorios 7,8, lo que demuestra la fiabilidad de este método. El rendimiento y la idoneidad de los electrodos selectivos de ionesdepende de su sensibilidad y selectividad, que se define por el cóctel de sensor (&#39;ionóforo de membrana líquida&#39;) utilizado. Cócteles de sensores contienen una molécula transportadora especial, por ejemplo valinomicina para K + microelectrodos selectivos que presenta una alta selectividad para el potasio 27. No obstante, la reactividad cruzada con otros iones puede ocurrir y debe ser probado. Valinomicina exhibe una reactividad cruzada significativa para el amonio, que tiene que tenerse en cuenta al interpretar los resultados (por ejemplo, 11,12). Además, debido a la tensión de respuesta de los ionóforos sigue un comportamiento de Nernst (cf. ecuación 1), la relación señal-ruido y umbral de detección dependen de la concentración del ion a medir. Así, mientras que los pequeños [K +] o transitorios evocar grandes cambios de voltaje contra el bajo de línea de base [K +] o, pequeña [Na +] o transitorios son mucho más difíciles de detectar en contra de la hila línea de base gh [Na +] o (cf. Figura 5 y 6). El rendimiento de los electrodos selectivos de iones también está determinado por la resolución temporal, que se rige en gran medida por su constante de tiempo eléctrica. Esta última está determinada principalmente por la resistencia axial del sensor, y por la capacitancia distribuida a lo largo de la longitud de la pipeta, entre sus soluciones internas y el fluido externo. En la configuración de dos cañones, la resistencia es alta, debido a la larga columna de sensor de iones de rellenado. Para un dieléctrico aislante dado (en este caso de vidrio de borosilicato), la capacitancia se rige por el grosor dieléctrico. En electrodos de doble cañón, la anchura dieléctrica asciende a la pared de vidrio de la pipeta. A medida que el vidrio se adelgaza cerca de la punta, la anchura dieléctrica cae, y la capacitancia aumenta. Estos factores se combinan para producir electrodos con los tiempos de respuesta que van desde varios cientos de milisegundos a variossegundo, ya que estos factores son variados. Una ventaja importante del diseño concéntrico es que tanto la resistencia axial y la capacitancia para el baño están muy disminuido. Las derivaciones de pipeta concéntricos mayoría de la resistencia del intercambiador de iones rellenado, dejando sólo un remanente en los últimos pocos micrómetros antes de la punta. Además, la solución de llenado dentro de la pipeta concéntrico está distanciado físicamente de la bañera, separados por el grosor de dos paredes de cristal, reduciendo en gran medida la capacitancia. Como se muestra anteriormente 10, el efecto combinado de reducción de la resistencia y la capacitancia es una mejora en la resolución temporal de dos órdenes de magnitud. En el caso de concéntricos de Ca2 + y pH microelectrodos, el 90% los tiempos de respuesta fueron tan bajos como 10 a 20 ms 10. Una ventaja relacionada del diseño concéntrico es el nivel de ruido inferior (ver Figura 8). Debido a la resistencia reducido en gran medida, los transitorios de tensión de cualquier ambient el ruido se reduce al mínimo. Por otra parte, la recuperación de dichos transitorios es rápida, debido a la constante de tiempo rápida. Estos artefactos son, por tanto, pequeño y rápido, y tienen un efecto menos perjudicial en las grabaciones fisiológicas (cf. Figura 8). También hay desventajas de la técnica concéntrica. En primer lugar, su montaje es más compleja, y requiere mucho tiempo. Una segunda desventaja es la necesidad de colocar un microelectrodo de referencia independiente con su punta, lo que implica el uso de cualquiera de un micromanipulador separado o un doble manipulador especializada. Finalmente, microelectrodos de doble cañón se pueden extender a un diseño de triple cañón, lo que permite la detección de dos especies de iones diferentes al mismo tiempo 28, que no es posible para los electrodos concéntricos. Trampas más comunes Silanización ineficiente. El paso más importante, y el principal obstáculo en la fabricación de cualquier líquido-senso microelectrodos selectivo de iones a base es el procedimiento silanización. Cuando los electrodos no responden a cambios en la concentración de iones específico, o responder con una respuesta sub-Nernst (es decir, bien menos de 58 mV por diferencia de concentración de diez veces), pobre eficacia de silanización es típicamente la causa. En nuestra experiencia, esto puede ocurrir si la humedad del aire es demasiado alto o demasiado bajo, típico de las condiciones en la temporada de verano o invierno, respectivamente. Si es factible ejercer algún control sobre la humedad ambiente, estos problemas pueden ser superados. La resistencia del electrodo es demasiado alto. Si es necesario, la resistencia del barril sensible a iones puede ser reducido por el biselado. Con este fin, exponer su punta a un fuerte chorro de abrasivo en suspensión en el agua durante un par de segundos. Esto hará que su punta todo lo posible para romper y menor es la resistencia al valor deseado. Puentes de sal. Salpuentes entre los barriles de iones y de referencia como resultado electrodos mal o ninguno-respuesta y por lo tanto también pueden confundir enormemente su desempeño en la calibración. Como se ha mencionado anteriormente (véase el punto 1.6.), Esto es principalmente un problema cuando se elige de dos cañones de vidrio theta, pero es un hecho poco habitual cuando se utiliza la técnica de barril offset, trenzado se describe aquí. Con la facilidad de fabricación en mente, el diseño de doble cañón original de Lux 29 menudo se puede utilizar de forma rentable. Este método utiliza pre-llenado de los barriles de iones y de referencia con soluciones salinas, una exposición rápida a una solución de silano por su aspiración y expulsión de la punta, siguiendo por la incorporación de intercambiador de iones, también a través de la punta (ver 30,31) . Estos electrodos pueden ser fabricados en aproximadamente 10 minutos, pero su tamaño de la punta es típicamente 4 micras o más y son más propensos a fallar durante un experimento. Por el contrario, los métodos de silanización que implican la exposición a vapores de silano y el caloring puede producir electrodos con puntas más pequeñas que duran días, ya veces semanas. En conjunto, hay varios protocolos y enfoques sobre cómo preparar microelectrodos selectivos de iones. Aquí, hemos descrito dos procedimientos principales para la fabricación de microelectrodos de dos cañones, así como concéntricos retorcidas que funcionan bien y fiable en nuestros laboratorios, con una tasa global de éxito de cerca del 100%. Es importante destacar que estas técnicas serán transferibles a la medición de otras especies de iones, incluyendo el pH o calcio, y también será aplicable a otras preparaciones que el cerebro, incluyendo cavidades o fluidos llenos de fluido en general. Por último, pero no menos importante, microelectrodos selectivos de iones permiten la determinación de las concentraciones de iones dentro de las células. Debido a su tamaño relativamente grande de la punta (~ 1 m), esta voluntad, sin embargo, será posible sólo en las células con un cuerpo de células grandes, por ejemplo, tal como se encuentra en los preparativos de invertebrados 28,32.

An author's middle initial was omitted from the publication, <a href="http://www.jove.com/video/53058/double-barreled-concentric-microelectrodes-for-measurement">Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue</a>. The author&#39;s name has been updated to:
Christine R. Rose
from:
Christine Rose

A correction was made to Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue.

Erratum: Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue

Electrical signaling in the brain is based on the flux of ions across plasma membranes. Major ion movements into and from the extracellular space are not only mediated by passage through voltage-gated ion channels, but also by postsynaptic ionotropic receptors as well as ion transporters. Neuronal activity is thus accompanied by complex changes in the extracellular concentration of all major ions 1. For example, influx of sodium into neurons during excitatory activity has been shown to result in a decrease in the extracellular sodium concentration ([Na+]o) 2. The same holds true for the extracellular calcium concentration because calcium ions rapidly enter both pre- and postsynaptic structures 3. At the same time, potassium moves the opposite way and this mediates an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) in the low mM range 4,5. Synaptic activity also causes changes in extracellular pH that are partly mitigated by concomitant glial membrane fluxes that change intraglial pH 6,7. These activity-related changes in extracellular ion concentrations have significant functional consequences. For example, even small increases in [K+]o depolarize neurons as well as glial cells thereby altering neuronal excitability, and several mechanisms exist to remove excess potassium 8. Failure of these may result in epileptiform activity of neurons or phenomena like spreading depression 1. 
Because of their critical importance, quantitative determination of extracellular ion concentrations is often necessary and required to understand the function and dysfunction of neural networks under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. For decades, double-barreled ion-selective microelectrodes have proven to be excellent tools for such measurements in brain tissue 9. For many ions, highly specific sensors with low cross-reactivity for other ions are available. In addition to the classical double-barreled electrodes, so-called concentric electrodes were recently introduced. The latter provide a superior time resolution, but take a little more time and effort to construct 10. 
In the following, we will describe the preparation and calibration of these two types of ion-selective microelectrodes. We then show how these electrodes can be employed in brain slice preparations for measurement of changes in [K+]o or [Na+]o induced by excitatory activity following different stimulation paradigms including bath and pressure application of drugs.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Abrasive&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>MicroPolish&#160;</td>
			<td>Buehler GmbH</td>
			<td>Dissolved in A.dest</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate-glass capillaries</td>
			<td>1405059</td>
			<td>Hilgenberg</td>
			<td>Application pipette; 75 mm x 2 mm, wall thickness 0.3 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries with filament</td>
			<td>GC 150 F-15&#160;</td>
			<td>Clark Electromedical Instruments, Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>For the sensor of double-barreled microelectrodes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries with filament</td>
			<td>GC100-F-15</td>
			<td>Clark Electromedical Instruments, Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>For the reference of double-barreled microelectrodes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries with filament</td>
			<td>GB-200TF-15&#160;</td>
			<td>Science Products</td>
			<td>Concentric, outer channel. o.d. 2.0 mm&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries with filament</td>
			<td>GB-120TF-10</td>
			<td>Science Products</td>
			<td>Concentric, inner channel. o.d. 1.2 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digidata</td>
			<td>1322A</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrometer amplifier with headstage</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td>Rin = 10T&#937; and Ibias=50fA-1pA (commercially available&#160; alternatives: e. g. Dagan IX2-700, with headstage (10 Gig feedback resistor) or EPMS-07, NPI, Tamm, Germany)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Experimental chamber</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td>Commercially available from e.g.&#160; Warner Instruments,USA;&#160; Scientifica, UK</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Furnace</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Heraeus</td>
			<td>Must stay constant at 200&#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hard sticky wax / dental wax&#160;</td>
			<td>Deiberit 502&#160;</td>
			<td>Siladent Dr. Boehme &#38; Schoeps GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td>Must stay constant at 40&#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microelectrodes holder made of plexiglas</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td>Double-barreled: o.d.&#160; capillaries 1.5 mm, concentric: o.d.&#160; capillaries 2 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Leitz</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>MD4R</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo microscope</td>
			<td>M205C</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objective</td>
			<td>Plan 0.8xLWD</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette puller</td>
			<td>Model PP-830</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>Concentric microelectrodes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette puller</td>
			<td>Model P-97</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>Sensor of concentric microelectrodes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pneumatic drug ejection system</td>
			<td>Picospritzter Type II</td>
			<td>General Valve TM Corporation</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Travel dovetail stage</td>
			<td>DT 25/M</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Two-component glue</td>
			<td>&#160;Araldite</td>
			<td>Huntsman advanced materials GmbH</td>
			<td>One may also use a small stripe of aluminum foil to stick the capillaries together&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silverwire</td>
			<td>99.9%&#160;</td>
			<td>Wieland Edelmetalle</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slicer / Vibratome</td>
			<td>Microm HM 650 V</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td>AxoScope 8.1&#160;</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertical puller&#160;</td>
			<td>Type PE-2</td>
			<td>Narishige Scientific Instruments</td>
			<td>With a revolvable chuck for&#160; double-barreled microelectrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>x/y translational stage</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Compound</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1(S),9(R)-(&#8722;)-Bicuculline methiodide</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>14343</td>
			<td>Competitive antagonist of GABAA receptors (light-sensitive); CAUTION toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNQX</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>C-127</td>
			<td>AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist; CAUTION toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>D5879</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-AP5</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>J64210</td>
			<td>NMDA receptor antagonist; CAUTION toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS)</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>440191</td>
			<td>CAUTION: Flammable, acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation) and corrosive to metals and skin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Aspartic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>A9256</td>
			<td>Activates NMDA and non-NMDA and EAATs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Glutamic acid monosodium salt hydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>G1626</td>
			<td>Activates NMDA-R, AMPA-R, QA-R and KA-R),&#160; mGluRs and EAATs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium ionophore I - cocktail B</td>
			<td>Fluka&#160;</td>
			<td>60403</td>
			<td>Based on valinomycin; CAUTION toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium ionophore II - cocktail A</td>
			<td>Fluka&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>71178</td>
			<td>Based on ETH 157</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TTX</td>
			<td>Ascent Scientific</td>
			<td>Asc-055</td>
			<td>Inhibitor of voltage-dependent Na+ channels; CAUTION toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water, ultra pure</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>W3500&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

double-barreled and concentric microelectrodes for measurement of extracellular ion signals in brain tissue

Electrical activity in the brain is accompanied by significant ion fluxes across membranes, resulting in complex changes in the extracellular concentration of all major ions. As these ion shifts bear significant functional consequences, their quantitative determination is often required to understand the function and dysfunction of neural networks under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. In the present study, we demonstrate the fabrication and calibration of double-barreled ion-selective microelectrodes, which have proven to be excellent tools for such measurements in brain tissue. Moreover, so-called &#8220;concentric&#8221; ion-selective microelectrodes are also described, which, based on their different design, offer a far better temporal resolution of fast ion changes. We then show how these electrodes can be employed in acute brain slice preparations of the mouse hippocampus. Using double-barreled, potassium-selective microelectrodes, changes in the extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) in response to exogenous application of glutamate receptor agonists or during epileptiform activity are demonstrated. Furthermore, we illustrate the response characteristics of sodium-sensitive, double-barreled and concentric electrodes and compare their detection of changes in the extracellular sodium concentration ([Na+]o) evoked by bath or pressure application of drugs. These measurements show that while response amplitudes are similar, the concentric sodium microelectrodes display a superior signal-to-noise ratio and response time as compared to the double-barreled design. Generally, the demonstrated procedures will be easily transferable to measurement of other ions species, including pH or calcium, and will also be applicable to other preparations.

<html> Para supervisar [K +] o y los cambios en el mismo en respuesta a la actividad excitatoria, un microelectrodo de dos cañones en potasio selectiva se insertó en el estrato radiado de la zona CA1. Unos pocos minutos después de empalamiento, el barril selectiva de iones del electrodo alcanzó una línea de base estable (Figura 7A), que corresponde a una [K +] o de alrededor de 2,8 mM, un valor cercano a la [K +] de la ACSF utilizado ( 2,5 mM). Bath aplicación de glutamato 0,5 mM durante 10 seg indujo un aumento reversible en [K +] o en aproximadamente 4 mM, seguido de un undershoot debajo del nivel basal que asciende a ~ 0,7 mM (Figura 7A). La reducción de la concentración de glutamato a 0,4, 0,3, y 0,2 mM causado una reducción correspondiente en la amplitud de tanto el aumento transitorio y la undershoot en O (Figura 7A) [K +]. oad / 53058 / 53058fig7.jpg &quot;/&gt; Figura 7. transitorios de potasio extracelular en respuesta a la actividad excitatoria. (A) [K +] o transitorios, que consiste en un aumento seguido por una undershoot debajo del nivel basal, inducida por la aplicación de baño de diferentes concentraciones de glutamato durante 10 s como se indica. (B) influencia de una perfusión con bloqueadores de los receptores de glutamato (CNQX, 100 mM; APV, 100 mM) y la tetrodotoxina (TTX; 0,5 M) en [K +] o transitorios inducidos por la aplicación de baño de glutamato 0,5 mM durante 10 seg. (C) espontánea [K +] o transitorios en presencia de 0mg 2+ / BIC. Los experimentos mostrados en la AC se realizaron con electrodos de dos cañones. Para fines de ilustración, los rastros fueron suavizadas con un filtro de Sawitzky-Golay (ancho 20). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53058/53058fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor cl</a>ick aquí para ver una versión más grande de esta figura. Experimentos anteriores han demostrado que este tipo de [K +] o señales inducidas por glutamato no se modifican significativamente durante la aplicación de TTX, por lo que son en gran medida independiente de la apertura de los canales de sodio dependientes de voltaje y la acción neuronal generación potencial de 15,16. Para estudiar los mecanismos subyacentes a los observados [K +] o cambios en respuesta al glutamato, se aplicó bloqueadores de los receptores de glutamato, a saber, CNQX (100 mM; bloqueador de los receptores AMPA) y APV (100 mM; bloqueador de los receptores NMDA) en presencia de TTX (0,5 M). Tras la perfusión baño con estos bloqueadores, inducida por glutamato [K +] o cambios eran prácticamente abolida, lo que confirma su dependencia de la apertura de los canales de los receptores de glutamato ionotrópicos como se informó anteriormente (por ejemplo, 17; Figura 7B). Para demostrar aún más tél relevancia de excitación glutamatérgica para la generación de extracelular [K +] señales, rebanadas fueron perfundidos con solución salina nominalmente Mg 2+ exento que contiene 10 mM metyoduro bicuculina (0 mg 2+ / BIC). Esto alivia la tensión dependiente de Mg 2+ -bloque de los receptores NMDA y amortigua la inhibición por bloqueo de los receptores GABA A, causando actividad epileptiforme recurrente espontánea en la red (por ejemplo, 18,19). Como era de esperar 20, espontáneo, recurrente [K +] o transitorios, que asciende a aproximadamente 1,5 mM fueron detectados en 0mg 2+ / BIC solución salina (Figura 7C). Entre estas respuestas, más pequeño [K +] o transitorios con una amplitud media de aproximadamente 0,2 mM ocurrió (Figura 7C). En una segunda serie de experimentos, se utilizó [Na +] microelectrodos -sensibles para determinar [Na +] o cambios provocados por la aplicación deagonistas de glutamato. Aquí, también comparó las características de respuesta de microelectrodos de dos cañones y concéntricas que emplean dos paradigmas de aplicación diferentes. [Na +] microelectrodos -sensibles se posiciona en el estrato radiatum a una profundidad de alrededor de 50 mM. Después se alcanzó una línea de base estable, el agonista de glutamato L-aspartato se aplicó por perfusión baño (10 mM, 120 seg, la perfusión del baño a 2,5 ml / min). Como se observó anteriormente 21, la aplicación de aspartato provocó una disminución lenta en [Na +] o en aproximadamente 15 mM, que duró unos 5 minutos y luego comenzó a recuperarse de nuevo a la línea de base (Figura 8A). Cabe destacar que, mientras que las amplitudes de pico y la cinética de los [Na +] o señales determinadas por ambos electrodos eran prácticamente idénticas en estas condiciones, los electrodos concéntricos exhibieron una línea de base más estable y un nivel de ruido inferior (Figura 8A). Para probar la r<html> ESPUESTA características de los diferentes electrodos bajo un paradigma aplicación más rápida, glutamato-nos aplica presión a través de una pipeta de vidrio fino colocado en el estrato radiatum a una distancia de un 20-40 micras desde la punta de la microelectrodo selectivo de iones. Como era de esperar 21, la aplicación de glutamato (10 mM) durante 200 ms provocó una caída en el O (Figura 8B) [Na +]. Las amplitudes máximas de la [Na +] o disminución estaban en el mismo rango para ambos tipos de electrodos (dos cañones: 4.5 - 13.5 mM, n = 14; concéntrica: 2,0 - 19,1 mM, n = 15). Sin embargo, en contraste con los resultados obtenidos con baño de perfusión lenta (véase más arriba), no sólo la relación señal-ruido, sino también el curso temporal de los [Na +] o señales detectadas por los dos tipos de electrodos diferían significativamente. El tiempo promedio a pico fue de 3,5 segundos para el sólo el 1,3 seg de dos cañones y de los microelectrodos concéntricos. homólogos ve_content &quot;&gt; Por lo tanto, estos resultados demuestran y confirman la cinética de respuesta más rápidos de Na + concéntricos vs. microelectrodos selectivos de dos cañones, (cf. Figura 6C y 8B), como también se observó para Ca2 + y pH selectivos 10 . En contraste con el estudio anterior, en el que se realizó la estimulación sináptica de corta ráfaga de evocar los transitorios de iones rápidos inducidos sinápticamente-, sólo había una tendencia, pero no hubo diferencias significativas en las amplitudes medias de los picos entre electrodos concéntricos y de dos cañones con nuestra aplicación paradigma. Esto era probablemente debido al hecho de que la distancia de la pipeta aplicación desde la punta del microelectrodo selectiva de iones varió por un factor de dos (20-40 micras), y, en consecuencia, que la concentración de glutamato máxima a la región diana no era el mismo en diferentes experimentos, obstruyendo cualquier diferencia existente en amplitudes de pico. (A) Top traza: Cambio en la voltage de los barriles de referencia (V ref) de un electrodo de dos cañones (trazo punteado negro) y un electrodo concéntrico (traza gris) en respuesta a los cambios en el baño de Na + de concentración ([Na +] b) como se indica. Tenga en cuenta que las respuestas de tensión de ambos electrodos son prácticamente idénticos. Trazas inferiores: Los cambios en el voltaje de la Na +: posible (V Na +) de un electrodo de dos cañones (trazo negro) y un electrodo concéntrico (traza gris) en respuesta a los cambios en [Na +] b. (B) parcelas de media logarítmica de la [Na +] b frente al V Na + de ambos electrodos. Parcelas lineal de los datos revelan una pendiente de aproximadamente 48 mV para ambos electrodos. (C) Respuesta de la V Na + de un (trazo negro) de dos cañones y un electrodo concéntrico (trazo gris) a un cambio rápido en el [Na +] b desde 152 mM a 70 mM. Tenga en cuenta que el tiempo de respuesta del electrodo concéntrico es significativamente faster. Para fines de ilustración, los rastros fueron suavizadas con un filtro de Sawitzky-Golay (ancho 20). <img alt="Figura 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/53058/53058fig8.jpg" /> Figura 8: transitorios sodio extracelular detectada por los electrodos de dos cañones y concéntricos. (A) los cambios transitorios en V ref y [Na +] o inducida por perfusión baño con aspartato 10 mM durante 120 segundos, como se indica en el bar. Las huellas superiores muestran una grabación realizada con un electrodo de dos cañones, las huellas más bajos se registraron usando un electrodo concéntrico. (B) los cambios transitorios en V ref y [Na +] o inducida por la aplicación de presión local con glutamato 10 mM durante 0,2 segundos según lo indicado por la punta de flecha. Las huellas superiores muestran una grabación realizada con un electrodo de dos cañones, las huellas más bajos se registraron usando un electrodo concéntrico.Líneas rojas punteadas representan ajustes lineales del periodo comprendido entre el inicio de la señal a su máximo. Tenga en cuenta que el tiempo de respuesta del electrodo concéntrico es significativamente más rápido bajo esta condición. Con fines ilustrativos, las huellas fueron suavizadas con un filtro Sawitzky-Golay (ancho 20). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53058/53058fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, haga clic aquí para ver una versión más grande de esta figura.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue at JoVE.com

Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue

We demonstrate the fabrication, calibration and properties of two types of ion-selective microelectrodes (double-barreled and concentric) for measurement of ion concentrations in brain tissue. These are then used in the mouse hippocampal slice preparation to show that excitatory activity changes both extracellular potassium and sodium concentrations.

Los microelectrodos de dos cañones y concéntricos para la medición de extracelular Ion señales en el tejido cerebral

Electrical activity in the brain is accompanied by significant ion fluxes across membranes, resulting in complex changes in the extracellular ...

double-barreled-concentric-microelectrodes-for-measurement

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.4K vistas.  Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf. We demonstrate the fabrication, calibration and properties of two types of ion-selective microelectrodes (double-barreled and concentric) for measurement of ion concentrations in brain tissue. These are then used in the mouse hippocampal slice preparation to show that excitatory activity changes both extracellular potassium and sodium concentrations. 

Video: Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue

Preparation of Mouse Brain Tissue for Immunoelectron Microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is extremely useful for visualizing microglial, oligodendrocytic, astrocytic, and neuronal subcellular compartments (dendrite, dendritic spine, axon, axon terminal, perikaryon), as well as their intracellular organelles and cytoskeleton, in the central nervous system at high spatial resolution. Combined with TEM, pre-embedding immunocytochemistry allows the discrimination of cellular elements with few distinctive features and identification criteria (e.g., microglial perikarya and processes, when using an antibody against the microglia-specific marker Iba1 (ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1; as presented here)), identifying the neurotransmitter contents of cellular elements (e.g., serotonergic) and their ultrastructural localization of soluble or membrane-bound proteins (e.g., 5 HT1A and EphA4 receptors). Here, we describe a protocol for transcardiac perfusion of mice with acrolein fixative, removal and sectioning of the brain, as well as immunoperoxidase-diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining, resin embedding, and ultrathin sectioning of the brain sections. Upon completion of these procedures, the immunostained material is ready for examination with TEM. When rigorously performed, this technique provides an excellent compromise between optimal ultrastructural preservation and immunocytochemical detection.

We describe a protocol for transcardiac perfusion of mice, removal and sectioning of the brain, as well as immunoperoxidase staining, resin embedding, and ultrathin sectioning of the brain sections. Upon completion of these procedures, the immunostained material is ready for examination with transmission electron microscopy.

Preparación del tejido de cerebro de ratón para inmunomicroscopía

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is extremely useful for visualizing microglial, oligodendrocytic, astrocytic, and neuronal subcellular compartments ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Focussed Ion Beam Milling and Scanning Electron Microscopy of Brain Tissue

This protocol describes how biological samples, like brain tissue, can be imaged in three dimensions using the focussed ion beam/scanning electron microscope (FIB/SEM). The samples are fixed with aldehydes, heavy metal stained using osmium tetroxide and uranyl acetate. They are then dehydrated with alcohol and infiltrated with resin, which is then hardened. Using a light microscope and ultramicrotome with glass knives, a small block containing the region interest close to the surface is made. The block is then placed inside the FIB/SEM, and the ion beam used to roughly mill a vertical face along one side of the block, close to this region. Using backscattered electrons to image the underlying structures, a smaller face is then milled with a finer ion beam and the surface scrutinised more closely to determine the exact area of the face to be imaged and milled. The parameters of the microscope are then set so that the face is repeatedly milled and imaged so that serial images are collected through a volume of the block. The image stack will typically contain isotropic voxels with dimenions as small a 4 nm in each direction. This image quality in any imaging plane enables the user to analyse cell ultrastructure at any viewing angle within the image stack.

This protocol describes how resin embedded brain tissue can be prepared and imaged in the three dimensions in the focussed ion beam, scanning electron microscope.

Haz de iones enfocado fresado y microscopía electrónica de barrido en el tejido cerebral

This protocol describes how biological samples, like brain tissue, can be imaged in three dimensions using the focussed ion beam/scanning electron ...

Design and Assembly of an Ultra-light Motorized Microdrive for Chronic Neural Recordings in Small Animals

The ability to chronically record from populations of neurons in freely behaving animals has proven an invaluable tool for dissecting the function of neural circuits underlying a variety of natural behaviors, including navigation1 , decision making 2,3, and the generation of complex motor sequences4,5,6. Advances in precision machining has allowed for the fabrication of light-weight devices suitable for chronic recordings in small animals, such as mice and songbirds. The ability to adjust the electrode position with small remotely controlled motors has further increased the recording yield in various behavioral contexts by reducing animal handling.6,7
 Here we describe a protocol to build an ultra-light motorized microdrive for long-term chronic recordings in small animals. Our design evolved from an earlier published version7, and has been adapted for ease-of use and cost-effectiveness to be more practical and accessible to a wide array of researchers. This proven design 8,9,10,11 allows for fine, remote positioning of electrodes over a range of ~ 5 mm and weighs less than 750 mg when fully assembled. We present the complete protocol for how to build and assemble these drives, including 3D CAD drawings for all custom microdrive components.

The design, fabrication and assembly of an ultra-light motorized microdrive is described. The device provides a cost-effective and easy-to-use solution for chronic recordings of single units in small behaving animals.

Diseño y montaje de un Microdrive ultraligero motorizado para crónicos Grabaciones neuronales en Pequeños Animales

The ability to chronically record from populations of neurons in freely behaving animals has proven an invaluable tool for dissecting the function of ...

Making, Testing, and Using Potassium Ion Selective Microelectrodes in Tissue Slices of Adult Brain

Potassium ions significantly contribute to the resting membrane potential of cells and, therefore, extracellular K+ concentration is a crucial regulator of cell excitability. Altered concentrations of extracellular K+ affect the resting membrane potential and cellular excitability by shifting the equilibria between closed, open and inactivated states for voltage-dependent ion channels that underlie action potential initiation and conduction. Hence, it is valuable to directly measure extracellular K+ dynamics in health and diseased states. Here, we describe how to make, calibrate and use monopolar K+-selective microelectrodes. We deployed them in adult hippocampal brain slices to measure electrically evoked K+ concentration dynamics. The judicious use of such electrodes is an important part of the tool-kit needed to evaluate cellular and biophysical mechanisms that control extracellular K+ concentrations in the nervous system.

Potassium ions contribute&#160;to the resting membrane potential of cells and extracellular K+ concentration is a crucial regulator of cellular excitability. We describe how to make, calibrate and use monopolar K+-selective microelectrodes. Using such electrodes enables the measurement of electrically evoked K+ concentration dynamics in adult hippocampal slices.

Fabricación, pruebas y uso de microelectrodos selectivos de Ion potasio en rebanadas del tejido del cerebro adulto

Potassium ions significantly contribute to the resting membrane potential of cells and, therefore, extracellular K+ concentration is a crucial regulator ...

Dissection of Local Ca2+ Signals in Cultured Cells by Membrane-targeted Ca2+ Indicators

Calcium ion (Ca2+) is a universal intracellular messenger molecule that drives multiple signaling pathways, leading to diverse biological outputs. The coordination of two Ca2+ signal sources&#8212;&#8220;Ca2+ influx&#8221; from outside the cell and &#8220;Ca2+ release&#8221; from the intracellular Ca2+ store endoplasmic reticulum (ER)&#8212;is considered to underlie the diverse spatio-temporal patterns of Ca2+ signals that cause multiple biological functions in cells. The purpose of this protocol is to describe a new Ca2+ imaging method that enables monitoring of the very moment of &#8220;Ca2+ influx&#8221; and &#8220;Ca2+ release&#8221;. OER-GCaMP6f is a genetically encoded Ca2+ indicator (GECI) comprising GCaMP6f, which is targeted to the ER outer membrane. OER-GCaMP6f can monitor Ca2+ release at a higher temporal resolution than conventional GCaMP6f. Combined with plasma membrane-targeted GECIs, the spatio-temporal Ca2+ signal pattern can be described at a subcellular resolution. The subcellular-targeted Ca2+ indicators described here are, in principle, available for all cell types, even for the in vivo imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans neurons. In this protocol, we introduce Ca2+ imaging in cells from cell lines, neurons, and glial cells in dissociated primary cultures, and describe the preparation of frozen stock of rat cortical neurons.

Dissection of Local Ca2+ Signals in Cultured Cells by Membrane-targeted Ca2+ Indicators

Here we present a protocol for Ca2+ imaging in neurons and glial cells, which enables the dissection of Ca2+ signals at subcellular resolution. This process is applicable to all cell types that allow the expression of genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators.

Disección de Local Ca2 + señales en las células cultivadas por membrana dirigidos Ca2 + indicadores

Calcium ion (Ca2+) is a universal intracellular messenger molecule that drives multiple signaling pathways, leading to diverse biological outputs. The ...

High-Resolution 3D Imaging of Rabies Virus Infection in Solvent-Cleared Brain Tissue

The visualization of infection processes in tissues and organs by immunolabeling is a key method in modern infection biology. The ability to observe and study the distribution, tropism, and abundance of pathogens inside of organ tissues provides pivotal data on disease development and progression. Using conventional microscopy methods, immunolabeling is mostly restricted to thin sections obtained from paraffin-embedded or frozen samples. However, the limited 2D image plane of these thin sections may lead to the loss of crucial information on the complex structure of an infected organ and the cellular context of the infection. Modern multicolor, immunostaining-compatible tissue clearing techniques now provide a relatively fast and inexpensive way to study high-volume 3D image stacks of virus-infected organ tissue. By exposing the tissue to organic solvents, it becomes optically transparent. This matches the sample&#8217;s refractive indices and eventually leads to a significant reduction of light scattering. Thus, in combination with long free working distance objectives, large tissue sections up to 1 mm in size can be imaged by conventional confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) at high resolution. Here, we describe a protocol to apply deep-tissue imaging after tissue clearing to visualize rabies virus distribution in infected brains in order to study topics like virus pathogenesis, spread, tropism, and neuroinvasion.

Novel, immunostaining-compatible tissue clearing techniques like the ultimate 3D imaging of solvent-cleared organs allow the 3D visualization of rabies virus brain infection and its complex cellular environment. Thick, antibody-labeled brain tissue slices are made optically transparent to increase imaging depth and to enable 3D analysis by confocal laser scanning microscopy.

Imágenes 3D de alta resolución de la infección por el virus de la rabia en el tejido cerebral con disolventes

The visualization of infection processes in tissues and organs by immunolabeling is a key method in modern infection biology. The ability to observe and ...

Labeling and Imaging of Amyloid Plaques in Brain Tissue Using the Natural Polyphenol Curcumin

Deposition of amyloid beta protein (A&#946;) in extra- and intracellular spaces is one of the hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). Therefore, detection of the presence of A&#946; in AD brain tissue is a valuable tool for developing new treatments to prevent the progression of AD. Several classical amyloid binding dyes, fluorochrome, imaging probes, and A&#946;-specific antibodies have been used to detect A&#946; histochemically in AD brain tissue. Use of these compounds for A&#946; detection is costly and time consuming. However, because of its intense fluorescent activity, high-affinity, and specificity for A&#946;, as well as structural similarities with traditional amyloid binding dyes, curcumin (Cur) is a promising candidate for labeling and imaging of A&#946; plaques in postmortem brain tissue. It is a natural polyphenol from the herb Curcuma longa. In the present study, Cur was used to histochemically label A&#946; plaques from both a genetic mouse model of 5x familial Alzheimer&#39;s disease (5xFAD) and from human AD tissue within a minute. The labeling capability of Cur was compared to conventional amyloid binding dyes, such as thioflavin-S (Thio-S), Congo red (CR), and Fluoro-jade C (FJC), as well as A&#946;-specific antibodies (6E10 and A11). We observed that Cur is the most inexpensive and quickest way to label and image A&#946; plaques when compared to these conventional dyes and is comparable to A&#946;-specific antibodies. In addition, Cur binds with most A&#946; species, such as oligomers and fibrils. Therefore, Cur could be used as the most cost-effective, simple, and quick fluorochrome detection agent for A&#946; plaques.

Curcumin is an ideal fluorophore for labeling and imaging of amyloid beta protein plaques in brain tissue due to its preferential binding to amyloid beta protein as well as its structural similarities with other traditional amyloid binding dyes. It can be used to label and image amyloid beta protein plaques more efficiently and inexpensively than traditional methods.

Etiquetado e imágenes de placas amiloideas en el tejido cerebral utilizando la curcumina de polifenoles naturales

Deposition of amyloid beta protein (A&#946;) in extra- and intracellular spaces is one of the hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). ...

Horizontal Hippocampal Slices of the Mouse Brain

The hippocampus is a highly organized structure in the brain that is a part of the limbic system and is involved in memory formation and consolidation as well as the manifestation of severe brain disorders, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease and epilepsy. The hippocampus receives a high degree of intra- and inter-connectivity, securing a proper communication with internal and external brain structures. This connectivity is accomplished via different informational flows in the form of fiber pathways. Brain slices are a frequently used methodology when exploring neurophysiological functions of the hippocampus. Hippocampal brain slices can be used for several different applications, including electrophysiological recordings, light microscopic measurements as well as several molecular biological and histochemical techniques. Therefore, brain slices represent an ideal model system to assess protein functions, to investigate pathophysiological processes involved in neurological disorders as well as for drug discovery purposes.
There exist several different ways of slice preparations. Brain slice preparations with a vibratome allow a better preservation of the tissue structure and guarantee a sufficient oxygen supply during slicing, which present advantages over the traditional use of a tissue chopper. Moreover, different cutting planes can be applied for vibratome brain slice preparations. Here, a detailed protocol for a successful preparation of vibratome-cut horizontal hippocampal slices of mouse brains is provided. In contrast to other slice preparations, horizontal slicing allows to keep the fibers of the hippocampal input path (perforant path) in a fully intact state within a slice, which facilitates the investigation of entorhinal-hippocampal interactions. Here, we provide a thorough protocol for the dissection, extraction, and acute horizontal slicing of the murine brain, and discuss challenges and potential pitfalls of this technique. Finally, we will show some examples for the use of brain slices in further applications.

This article aims to describe a systematic protocol to obtain horizontal hippocampal brain slices in mice. The objective of this methodology is to preserve the integrity of hippocampal fiber pathways, such as the perforant path and the mossy fiber tract to assess dentate gyrus related neurological processes.

Rebanadas hipocampales horizontales del cerebro del ratón

The hippocampus is a highly organized structure in the brain that is a part of the limbic system and is involved in memory formation and consolidation as ...

A Hydrophobic Tissue Clearing Method for Rat Brain Tissue

Hydrophobic tissue clearing methods are easily adjustable, fast, and low-cost procedures that allows for the study of a molecule of interest in unaltered tissue samples. Traditional immunolabeling procedures require cutting the sample into thin sections, which restricts the ability to label and examine intact structures. However, if brain tissue can remain intact during processing, structures and circuits can remain intact for the analysis. Previously established clearing methods take significant time to completely clear the tissue, and the harsh chemicals can often damage sensitive antibodies. The iDISCO method quickly and completely clears tissue, is compatible with many antibodies, and requires no special lab equipment. This technique was initially validated for the use in mice tissue, but the current protocol adapts this method to image hemispheres of control and transgenic rat brains. In addition to this, the present protocol also makes several adjustments to preexisting protocol to provide clearer images with less background staining. Antibodies for Iba-1 and tyrosine hydroxylase were validated in the HIV-1 transgenic rat and in F344/N control rats using the present hydrophobic tissue clearing method. The brain is an interwoven network, where structures work together more often than separately of one another. Analyzing the brain as a whole system as opposed to a combination of individual pieces is the greatest benefit of this whole brain clearing method.

Here we present a hydrophobic tissue clearing method that allows for the viewing of target molecules as part of intact brain structures. This technique has now been validated for F344/N control and HIV-1 transgenic rats of both sexes.

Un método de limpieza de tejido hidrófobo para el tejido cerebral de rata

Hydrophobic tissue clearing methods are easily adjustable, fast, and low-cost procedures that allows for the study of a molecule of interest in unaltered ...

A Plate-Based Assay for the Measurement of Endogenous Monoamine Release in Acute Brain Slices

Monoamine neurotransmitters are associated with numerous neurologic and psychiatric ailments. Animal models of such conditions have shown alterations in monoamine neurotransmitter release and uptake dynamics. Technically complex methods such as electrophysiology, Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry (FSCV), imaging, in vivo&#160;microdialysis, optogenetics, or use of radioactivity are required to study monoamine function. The method presented here is an optimized two-step approach for detecting monoamine release in acute brain slices using a 48-well plate containing tissue holders for examining monoamine release, and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) for monoamine release measurement. Briefly, rat brain sections containing regions of interest, including prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and dorsal striatum were obtained using a tissue slicer or vibratome. These regions of interest were dissected from the whole brain and incubated in an oxygenated physiological buffer. Viability was examined throughout the experimental time course, by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The acutely dissected brain regions were incubated in varying drug conditions that are known to induce monoamine release through the transporter (amphetamine) or through the activation of exocytotic vesicular release (KCl). After incubation, the released products in the supernatant were collected and analyzed through an HPLC-ECD system. Here, basal monoamine release is detected by HPLC from acute brain slices. This data supports previous in vivo and in vitro results showing that AMPH and KCl induce monoamine release. This method is particularly useful for studying mechanisms associated with monoamine transporter-dependent release and provides an opportunity to screen compounds affecting monoamine release in a rapid and low-cost manner.

This method introduces a simple technique for the detection of endogenous monoamine release using acute brain slices. The setup uses a 48-well plate containing a tissue holder for monoamine release. Released monoamine is analyzed by HPLC coupled with electrochemical detection. Additionally, this technique provides a screening method for drug discovery.

Un ensayo basado en placas para la medición de la liberación endógena de monoamina en cortes cerebrales agudos

Monoamine neurotransmitters are associated with numerous neurologic and psychiatric ailments. Animal models of such conditions have shown alterations in ...