Name: electrochemical etching and characterization of sharp field emission points for electron impact ionization
Uploaded: 2016-07-12T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrochemical Etching and Characterization of Sharp Field Emission Points for Electron Impact Ionization at JoVE.com

We acknowledge the services of Stanley Flegler, Carol Flegler, and Abigail Tirrell at the MSU Center for Advanced Microscopy. We thank Ray Clark and Mark Wilson for technical assistance with the set-up of the electrochemical etching apparatus. Earlier contributions from Anne Benjamin, Georg Bollen, Rafael Ferrer, David Lincoln, Stefan Schwarz and Adrian Valverde, and technical assistance from John Yurkon are also acknowledged. This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation contract no. PHY-1102511 and PHY-1307233, Michigan State University and the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, and Central Michigan University.

1. Electrochemical Etching
<ol>
	<li>Experimental set-up
	<ol>
		<li>Apparatus 
		Note: The electrochemically etching set-up requires a standard 0 - 30 V direct current (DC) benchtop power supply and appropriate cables, a separatory funnel, a wide base glass beaker, and standard rod and utility clamp with electrically insulating grips. Small screws, insulated stand-offs, and alligator clips will also be required. Additional items, described below and shown in the picture of the et...

<ol>
	<li>Muller, E. W., Bahadur, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Field+Ionization+of+Gases+at+a+Metal+Surface+and+the+Resolution+of+the+Field+Ion+Microscope.">Field Ionization of Gases at a Metal Surface and the Resolution of the Field Ion Microscope.</a> Phys. Rev. 102, 624 (1956).</li><li>Binnig, G., Rohrer, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+Tunneling+Microscopy.">Scanning Tunneling Microscopy.</a> Helv. Phys. Acta. 55, 726-735 (1982).</li><li>Melmed, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+art+and+science+and+other+aspects+of+making+sharp+tips.">The art and science and other aspects of making sharp tips.</a> J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B. 9, 601-608 (1990).</li><li>Shi, W., Redshaw, M., Myers, E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+masses+of+32,33S,+84,86Kr,+and+129,132Xe+with+uncertainties+0.1+ppb.">Atomic masses of 32,33S, 84,86Kr, and 129,132Xe with uncertainties 0.1 ppb.</a> Phys. Rev. A. 72, 022510 (2005).</li><li>Van Dyck, R. S., Zafonte, S. L., Van Liew, S., Pinegar, D. B., Schwinberg, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultraprecise+Atomic+Mass+Measurement+of+the+&#945;+particle+and+4He.">Ultraprecise Atomic Mass Measurement of the &#945; particle and 4He.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 220802 (2004).</li><li>Hobara, R., Yoshimoto, S., Hasegawa, S., Sakamoto, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+electrochemical-etching+technique+for+tungsten+tips+suitable+for+multi-tip+scanning+tunneling+microscopes.">Dynamic electrochemical-etching technique for tungsten tips suitable for multi-tip scanning tunneling microscopes.</a> e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 5, 94-98 (2007).</li><li>Klein, M., Schwitzgebel, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+lamellae+drop-off+technique+for+sharp+tip+preparation+in+scanning+tunneling+microscopy.">An improved lamellae drop-off technique for sharp tip preparation in scanning tunneling microscopy.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 3099-3103 (1997).</li><li>Kerfriden, S., Nahl&#233;, A. H., Campbell, S. A., Walsh, F. C., Smith, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+electrochemical+etching+of+tungsten+STM+tips.">The electrochemical etching of tungsten STM tips.</a> Electrochim. Acta. 43, 1939-1944 (1998).</li><li>Lemke, H., G&#246;ddenhenrich, T., Bochem, H. P., Hartmann, U., Heiden, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+microtips+for+scanning+probe+microscopy.">Improved microtips for scanning probe microscopy.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61, 2538-2538 (1990).</li><li>Song, J. P., Pryds, N. H., Glejb&#248;l, K., M&#248;rch, K. A., Th&#246;l&#233;n, A. R., Christensen, L. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+development+in+the+preparation+of+sharp+scanning+tunneling+microscopy+tips.">A development in the preparation of sharp scanning tunneling microscopy tips.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64, 900-903 (1993).</li><li>Fowler, R. H., Nordheim, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+Emission+in+Intense+Electric+Fields.">Electron Emission in Intense Electric Fields.</a> Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. , 119-173 (1928).</li><li>Kim, Y. -. G., Choi, E. -. H., Kang, S. -. O., Cho, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer-controlled+fabrication+of+ultra-sharp+tungsten+tips.">Computer-controlled fabrication of ultra-sharp tungsten tips.</a> J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B. 16, 2079 (1998).</li><li>Brown, K. L., Tautfest, G. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Faraday-Cup+Monitors+for+High-Energy+Electron+Beams.">Faraday-Cup Monitors for High-Energy Electron Beams.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 27, 696 (1956).</li><li>Redshaw, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+and+characterization+of+field+emission+points+for+ion+production+in+Penning+trap+applications.">Fabrication and characterization of field emission points for ion production in Penning trap applications.</a> Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 379, 187-193 (2015).</li><li>Ibe, J. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+electrochemical+etching+of+tips+for+scanning+tunneling+microscopy.">On the electrochemical etching of tips for scanning tunneling microscopy.</a> J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A. 8, 3570 (1990).</li><li>Ekvall, I., Wahlstr&#246;m, E., Claesson, D., Olin, H., Olsson, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+and+characterization+of+electrochemically+etched+W+tips+for+STM.">Preparation and characterization of electrochemically etched W tips for STM.</a> Meas. Sci. Technol. 10, 11-18 (1999).</li><li>Schiller, C., Koomans, A. A., van Rooy, T. L., Sch&#246;nenberger, C., Elswijk, H. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decapitation+of+tungsten+field+emitter+tips+during+sputter+sharpening.">Decapitation of tungsten field emitter tips during sputter sharpening.</a> Surf. Sci. 339, L925-L930 (1995).</li></ol>

We have described straightforward procedures to electrochemically etch sharp field emission points (FEPs) in a NaOH solution, and to test the FEPs by operating them in field emission mode. The etching procedure described is a variation of existing techniques-the lamella drop-off technique7,8 and the floating layer technique9,10. However, we found it to be more convenient and reliable to implement than the aforementioned methods.
Before starting the etching procedure, to m...

Sharp tips or points have long been used in microscopy applications, such as the field ion microscope (FIM)1 and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM)2, and a range of techniques for producing sharp tips of various materials have been developed3. These sharp tips can also be operated as field emission points (FEPs) by applying a high voltage to them, and serve as a convenient electron beam source. One application of such as source is ion production via electron impact ionization (EII). The FEP is particularly advantageous in applications where temperature fluctuations produced by thermal emitters are undesirable. For example, ion production via EII of background gas or vapor in high precision Penning traps4,5.
A simple method for fabricating FEPs is to electrochemically etch tungsten rods in a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. This technique is relatively straightforward to implement with modest equipment and has been shown to be quite reproducible and reliable. A number of methods are described in the literature and improvements to these techniques continue to appear6. Here we describe a method for the electrochemical etching of tungsten tips in a NaOH solution. Our method is a variation of the lamella drop-off technique7,8 and the floating layer technique9,10. Like these two methods it enables the production of two tips from a single etching procedure. A picture of the experimental apparatus for etching the tips is shown in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Etching apparatus. Photograph of the experimental apparatus used for electrochemical etching of tungsten rods with NaOH solution. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Electrochemical etching of tungsten in the aqueous NaOH base occurs via a two-stage process. First, intermediate tungsten oxides are formed, and second, these oxides are non-electrochemically dissolved to form the soluble tungstate anion. This process is described, in simplified form, by the two reactions
(1) W + 6OH- &#8594; WO3(S) + 3H2O + 6e-, and
(2)&#160;WO3(S) + 2OH- &#8594; WO42- + H2O.
The etching current and the NaOH solution molarity used affect the time and voltage required to etch through the tungsten rod. Studies of these effects are presented and discussed. More importantly, the etching parameters have an effect on the geometry of the tips and, as such, on their operation in field emission mode. The geometry of the tips we produced were characterized by imaging them with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). These images can be used to estimate, for example, the tip radius. In addition, the tips were operated in field emission mode by applying a negative voltage of typically a few hundred volts to a few kilovolts to them and monitoring the resulting electron emission current. The relationship between field emission current, I, and applied bias voltage, V, can be described by the Fowler-Nordheim equation11
(3) I = AV2 e-Creff/V,
where reff is the effective radius of the tip, A is a constant, and C is the second Fowler-Nordheim constant <img alt="Equation 9" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030eq9.jpg" />, in which b = 6.83 eV-3/2V/nm, <img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030eq11.jpg" /> is the work function of tungsten (<img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030eq11.jpg" /> &#8776; 4.5 eV), k is a factor that depends on geometry (k &#8776; 5), and <img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030eq15.jpg" /> is the Nordheim image correction term (<img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/54030/54030eq15.jpg" /> &#8776; 1)12. Hence, the effective radius of the tip can be determined by measuring the electron current as a function of bias voltage. Specifically, it can be obtained from the slope of a so-called Fowler-Nordheim (FN) plot of ln(I/V2) vs 1/V.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1230">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:325px;">Tungsten Rod 0.020&#34; x 12&#34;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">ESPI Metals</td>
			<td style="width:451px;"><a href="http://www.espimetals.com/index.php/online-catalog/467-Tungsten">http://www.espimetals.com/index.php/online-catalog/467-Tungsten&#160;</a></td>
			<td style="width:297px;">3N8 Purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaOH salt</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>Item # WU-88404-71</td>
			<td>100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Separatory funnel</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>Item#&#160;WU-34506-03</td>
			<td>250 mL&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DC Power supply</td>
			<td>BK Precision</td>
			<td>1672</td>
			<td>Triple Output 0 - 32 V, 0 - 3 A DC Power Supply</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Acetone</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>Item#&#160;WU-88000-68</td>
			<td>500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Data Acquisition Card</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:451px;">NI PXI-6221</td>
			<td>16 AI, 24 DIO, 2 AO</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Relay</td>
			<td>Magnecraft</td>
			<td>276 XAXH-5D</td>
			<td>7 A, 30 V DC Reed Relay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">6-way 6&#34; conflat flange cross</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>C6-0600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">6&#34; to 2-3/4&#34; conflat zero length reducer flange&#160; (x3)</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>RF600X275</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2-3/4&#34; conflat flange SHV feedthrough</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>IFTSG041033</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2-3/4&#34; conflat flange BNC feedthrough</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>IFTBG042033</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2-3/4&#34; conflat flange linear feedthrough</td>
			<td>MDC</td>
			<td>660006, REF# BLM-275-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">6&#34; conflat flange blankoff</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>F0600X000N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">6&#34; conflat flange window</td>
			<td>Kurt J Lesker</td>
			<td>VPZL-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HV Power supply</td>
			<td>Keithley Instruments</td>
			<td>Keithley Model #2290-5</td>
			<td>0 - 5 kV DC HV Power Supply</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Picoammeter</td>
			<td>Keithley Instruments</td>
			<td>Keithley Model #6485</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Faraday Cup</td>
			<td>Beam Imaging Solutions</td>
			<td>Model FC-1 Faraday Cup</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

electrochemical etching and characterization of sharp field emission points for electron impact ionization

A new variation of the drop-off method for fabricating field emission points by electrochemically etching tungsten rods in a NaOH solution is described. The results of studies in which the etching current and the molarity of the NaOH solution used in the etching process were varied are presented. The investigation of the geometry of the tips, by imaging them with a scanning electron microscope, and by operating them in field emission mode is also described. The field emission tips produced are intended to be used as an electron beam source for ion production via electron impact ionization of background gas or vapor in Penning trap mass spectrometry applications.

Study of etching parameters
During the etching process the power supply is operated in constant current mode. The voltage required to maintain this constant current increases slightly as the tungsten rod is etched away (due to the increase in resistance of the rod). The current drops almost to zero when the tip etches all the way through. A small current continues to flow due to the fact that the upper tip is st...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrochemical Etching and Characterization of Sharp Field Emission Points for Electron Impact Ionization at JoVE.com

Electrochemical Etching and Characterization of Sharp Field Emission Points for Electron Impact Ionization

A method for electrochemically etching field emission tips is presented. Etching parameters are characterized and the operation of the tips in field emission mode is investigated.

A new variation of the drop-off method for fabricating field emission points by electrochemically etching tungsten rods in a NaOH solution is described. ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to fabricate field emission points or FEPs by electrochemically etching tungsten rods, and to then use these FEPs to produce an electron beam by operating them in field emission mode. The FEP produced using this method can provide a convenient electron source that can be used, for example, in electron impact ionization to produce ions for applications such as mass spectrometry. The main advantage of this technique is that it is reliable and relatively straightforward to implement with modest equipment.Demonstrating parts of the procedure will be Eranjan and Nadeesha, graduate students from my lab. Begin with preparing lengths of 0.5 millimeter diameter tungsten rod. Use a pair of wire clippers to cut the rod into 25 milimeter lengths.About a dozen small rods can be made from one 12 inch rod. Then, using sonication, clean the rods in acetone for 15 minutes. After the acetone bath, rinse the rods with deionized water for a few seconds.Next, prepare the sodium hydroxide solution using all safety precautions. The process is highly exothermic and can release heat that may cause burns or ignite flammables, and could cause the solution to splash out of the container. Once made, transfer the sodium hydroxide solution to a wash bottle and then use it to fill a separatory funnel with a 1.5 molar sodium hydroxide solution.Set up the apparatus with the copper FEP catcher block placed inside a wide-based, glass beaker, and position a copper cathode above it spaced off with insulating standoffs. Next, set the current on the DC power supply to the desired value, typically 200 milliamps. Then, place a tungsten rod in the holder and connect the positive terminal of the power supply to the 4-40 holding screw.Now, insert the tungsten rod through the hole in the copper cathode. Extend the rod approximately 12 milimeters beyond the hole. Then, connect the negative terminal of the power supply to the copper cathode.Then, adjust the drip rate from the separatory funnel to match the drip rate through the hole. Try for about one drip every three seconds. Wait for the reservoir in the copper cathode to fill before proceeding.Next, turn on the DC power supply to start the etching. The automatic shut-off circuit will cut the current once the rod etches through. To inspect the FEPs, carefully remove the bottom FEP from the catcher block using a pair of pliers or tweezers.Remove the upper FEP from the holder by loosening the 4-40 screw and gently pulling it out. Then, briefly rinse the etched rod with acetone, and then deionized water. Store the FEPs in a desiccator.First, select and examine an FEP under a microscope. The tip should taper to a fine point. FEPs that are bent or have an irregular structure should be discarded.The field emission test set up includes a vacuum chamber, electrical feedthroughs, pumps, a high voltage power supply, a picoammeter, and a Faraday cup, or a simple conducting collection plate on a linear feedthrough. The set up also requires an FEP holder. The Faraday cup should be placed about two centimeters from the tip of the FEP.Next, connect the high voltage supply to the SHV feedthrough attached to the FEP holder. Then, connect the picoammeter to the BNC feedthrough that the Faraday cup is attached to. Now, pump down the set up to a pressure of one ten-thousandth of a millibar or lower.With the pressure dropped, gradually increase the bias on the FEP and monitor the electron beam current on the Faraday cup. When a current registers, the field emission has begun. Now, increase the high voltage current in incremental steps, such as 50 volts.At each step, record the average electron beam current. Do not raise the current above one microamp here. The test is complete when the voltage has reached its maximum value with the current at a few hundred nanoamperes.After the first FEP test, use conditioning to clean the tip. To do this, operate the testing set up in field emission mode at about five nanoamperes for an hour. Later, repeat the current versus voltage scan.The voltage required to maintain a constant etching current increases slightly as the tungsten rod is etched away. Then, the current drops to almost zero when the rod etches all the way through. The time required to etch through the rod depends on the current's strength and the molarity of the solution.The etching rate increases linearly with the current. As expected from Ohm's Law, the etching voltage is linearly proportional to the current and the voltage required to deliver the constant current decreases with increasing molarity due to the increased conductivity of the solution. When operated in field emission mode, electrons from the FEP strike the Farady cup and the current is recorded.After the conditioning process, the FEP fired at a lower voltage indicating that a lower bias potential on the FEP could remove electrons and that the effective radius of the FEP had decreased. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to fabricate FEPs via electrochemical etching, how to use them to produce and electron beam, and how to characterize the FEP.

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

A technique to investigate the properties and performance of new multi-electron metal/air battery systems is proposed and presented. A method for ...

Spatial Separation of Molecular Conformers and Clusters

Gas-phase molecular physics and physical chemistry experiments commonly use supersonic expansions through pulsed valves for the production of cold ...

Characterization of Recombination Effects in a Liquid Ionization Chamber Used for the Dosimetry of a Radiosurgical Accelerator

Most modern radiation therapy devices allow the use of very small fields, either through beamlets in Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) or via ...

Electron Channeling Contrast Imaging for Rapid III-V Heteroepitaxial Characterization

Misfit dislocations in heteroepitaxial layers of GaP grown on Si(001) substrates are characterized through use of electron channeling contrast imaging ...

Protocol of Electrochemical Test and Characterization of Aprotic Li-O2 Battery

Protocol of Electrochemical Test and Characterization of Aprotic Li-O2 Battery

We demonstrate a method for electrochemical testing of an aprotic Li-O2 battery. An aprotic Li-O2 battery is made of a Li-metal anode, an aprotic ...

Emission Spectroscopic Boundary Layer Investigation during Ablative Material Testing in Plasmatron

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution ...

Comprehensive Characterization of Extended Defects in Semiconductor Materials by a Scanning Electron Microscope

Extended defects such as dislocations and grain boundaries have a strong influence on the performance of microelectronic devices and on other applications ...

Fabrication of White Light-emitting Electrochemical Cells with Stable Emission from Exciplexes

The authors present an approach for fabricating stable white light emission from polymer light-emitting electrochemical cells (PLECs) having an active ...

One-Step Approach to Fabricating Polydimethylsiloxane Microfluidic Channels of Different Geometric Sections by Sequential Wet Etching Processes

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) materials are substantially exploited to fabricate microfluidic devices by using soft lithography replica molding techniques. ...

Method Development for Contactless Resonant Cavity Dielectric Spectroscopic Studies of Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of ...