Name: preparation of dmmtav and dmdtav using dmav for environmental applications: synthesis, purification, and confirmation
Uploaded: 2018-03-09T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation at JoVE.com

This research was supported by Basic Science Research program (Project number: 2016R1A2B4013467) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT &#38; Future Planning 2016 and also supported by Korea Basic Science Institute Research Program (Project number: C36707).

1. Synthesis of DMMTAV
<ol>
	<li>Chemical preparation and molar ratio mixing of DMAV, Na2S, and H2SO4 
	NOTE: DMAV:Na2S:H2SO4 = 1:1.6:1.6
	<ol>
		<li>Dissolve 5.24 g of DMAV in 40 mL deionized and N2-purged (purged for at least 30 min) water in a 50 mL centrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Prepare Na2S reagent by dissolving 14.41 g of Na2S&#183;9H2O in 50...

<ol>
	<li>Suzuki, K. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dimethylthioarsenicals+as+arsenic+metabolites+and+their+chemical+preparation.">Dimethylthioarsenicals as arsenic metabolites and their chemical preparation.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 17, 914-921 (2004).</li><li>Kuroda, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microbial+metabolite+of+dimethylarsinic+acid+is+highly+toxic+and+genotoxic.">Microbial metabolite of dimethylarsinic acid is highly toxic and genotoxic.</a> Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 198, 345-353 (2004).</li><li>Naranmandura, H., Iwata, K., Suzuki, K. T., Ogra, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+and+metabolism+of+four+different+dimethylated+arsenicals+in+hamsters.">Distribution and metabolism of four different dimethylated arsenicals in hamsters.</a> Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 245, 67-75 (2010).</li><li>Naranmandura, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+toxicity+of+arsenic+metabolites+in+human+bladder+cancer+EJ-1+cells.">Comparative toxicity of arsenic metabolites in human bladder cancer EJ-1 cells.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 24, 1586-1596 (2011).</li><li>Wallschlager, D., London, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+methylated+arsenic-sulfur+compounds+in+groundwater.">Determination of methylated arsenic-sulfur compounds in groundwater.</a> Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 228-234 (2008).</li><li>Zhang, J., Kim, H., Townsend, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methodology+for+assessing+thioarsenic+formation+potential+in+sulfidic+landfill+environments.">Methodology for assessing thioarsenic formation potential in sulfidic landfill environments.</a> Chemosphere. 107, 311-318 (2014).</li><li>Shimoda, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proposal+for+novel+metabolic+pathway+of+highly+toxic+dimethylated+arsenics+accompanied+by+enzymatic+sulfuration,+desulfuration+and+oxidation.">Proposal for novel metabolic pathway of highly toxic dimethylated arsenics accompanied by enzymatic sulfuration, desulfuration and oxidation.</a> Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 30, 129-136 (2015).</li><li>Naranmandura, H., Suzuki, T. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+dimethylthioarsenicals+in+red+blood+cells.">Formation of dimethylthioarsenicals in red blood cells.</a> Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 227, 390-399 (2008).</li><li>Leffers, L., Ebert, F., Taleshi, S. M., Francesconi, A. K., Schwerdtle, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+toxicological+characterization+of+two+arsenosugars+and+their+metabolites.">In vitro toxicological characterization of two arsenosugars and their metabolites.</a> Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 57, 1270-1282 (2013).</li><li>Wang, Q. Q., Thomas, J. D., Naranmandura, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Important+of+being+thiomethylated:+Formation,+Fate+and+Effects+of+methylated+thioarsenicals.">Important of being thiomethylated: Formation, Fate and Effects of methylated thioarsenicals.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 25, 281-289 (2015).</li><li>Kim, Y. T., Lee, H., Yoon, H. O., Woo, N. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinetics+of+dimethylated+thioarsenicals+and+the+formation+of+highly+toxic+dimethylmonothioarsinic+acid+in+environment.">Kinetics of dimethylated thioarsenicals and the formation of highly toxic dimethylmonothioarsinic acid in environment.</a> Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 11637-11645 (2016).</li><li>Cullen, W. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methylated+and+thiolated+arsenic+species+for+environmental+and+health+research+-+A+review+on+synthesis+and+characterization.">Methylated and thiolated arsenic species for environmental and health research - A review on synthesis and characterization.</a> J. Environ. Sci. 49, 7-27 (2016).</li><li>Fricke, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chromatographic+separation+and+identification+of+products+form+the+reaction+of+dimethylarsinic+acid+with+hydrogen+sulfide.">Chromatographic separation and identification of products form the reaction of dimethylarsinic acid with hydrogen sulfide.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 18, 1821-1829 (2005).</li><li>Fricke, M., Zeller, M., Cullen, W., Witkowski, M., Creed, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dimethylthioarsinic+anhydride:+a+standard+for+arsenic+speciation.">Dimethylthioarsinic anhydride: a standard for arsenic speciation.</a> Anal. Chim. Acta. 583, 78-83 (2007).</li><li>Suzuki, K. T., Iwata, K., Naranmandura, H., Suzuki, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+differences+between+twon+dimethylthioarsenicals+in+rats.">Metabolic differences between twon dimethylthioarsenicals in rats.</a> Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 218, 166-173 (2007).</li><li>Jeong, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+simultaneous+analytical+method+to+determine+arsenic+speciation+using+HPLC-ICP-MS:+Arsenate,+arsenite,+monomethylarsonic+acid,+dimethylarsinic+acid,+dimethyldithioarsinic+acid,+and+dimethylmonothioarsinic+acid.">Development of a simultaneous analytical method to determine arsenic speciation using HPLC-ICP-MS: Arsenate, arsenite, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid, dimethyldithioarsinic acid, and dimethylmonothioarsinic acid.</a> Microchem. J. 134, 295-300 (2017).</li><li>Li, Y., Low, C. -. K., Scott, A. J., Amal, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arsenic+speciation+in+municipal+landfill+leachate.">Arsenic speciation in municipal landfill leachate.</a> Chemosphere. 79, 794-801 (2010).</li><li>Conklin, D. S., Fricke, W. M., Creed, A. P., Creed, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+of+the+pH+effects+on+the+formation+of+methylated+thio-arsenicals,+and+the+effects+of+pH+and+temperature+on+their+stability.">Investigation of the pH effects on the formation of methylated thio-arsenicals, and the effects of pH and temperature on their stability.</a> J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 23, 711-716 (2008).</li><li>Hansen, H. R., Raab, A., Jaspara, M., Milne, F. B., Feldmann, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sulfur-containing+arsenical+mistaken+for+dimethylarsinous+acid+[DMA(III)]+and+identified+as+a+natural+metabolite+in+urine:+major+implications+for+studies+on+arsenic+metabolism+and+toxicity.">Sulfur-containing arsenical mistaken for dimethylarsinous acid [DMA(III)] and identified as a natural metabolite in urine: major implications for studies on arsenic metabolism and toxicity.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 17, 1086-1091 (2004).</li><li>Mandal, B. K., Suzuki, K. T., Anzai, K., Yamaguchi, K., Sei, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+SEC-HPLC-ICP-MS+hyphenated+technique+for+identification+of+sulfur-containing+arsenic+metabolites+in+biological+samples.">A SEC-HPLC-ICP-MS hyphenated technique for identification of sulfur-containing arsenic metabolites in biological samples.</a> J. Chromatogr. B. 874, 64-76 (2008).</li><li>Bartel, M., Ebert, F., Leffers, L., Karst, U., Schwerdtle, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toxicological+characterization+of+the+inorganic+and+organic+arsenic+metabolite+thio-DMAV+in+cultured+human+lung+cells.">Toxicological characterization of the inorganic and organic arsenic metabolite thio-DMAV in cultured human lung cells.</a> J. Toxicol. 2011, (2011).</li><li>An, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+dimethyldithioarsinic+acid+in+a+simulated+landfill+leachate+in+relation+to+hydrosulfide+concentration.">Formation of dimethyldithioarsinic acid in a simulated landfill leachate in relation to hydrosulfide concentration.</a> Environ. Geochem. Health. 38, 255-263 (2016).</li><li>Chen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arsenic+speciation+in+the+blood+of+arsenite-treated+F344+rats.">Arsenic speciation in the blood of arsenite-treated F344 rats.</a> Chem. Res. Toxicol. 26, 952-962 (2013).</li><li>Alava, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HPLC-ICP-MS+method+development+to+monitor+arsenic+speciation+changes+by+human+gut+microbiota.">HPLC-ICP-MS method development to monitor arsenic speciation changes by human gut microbiota.</a> Biomed. Chromatogr. 26, 524-533 (2012).</li><li>Kurosawa, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+metabolic+activation+associated+with+glutathione+in+dimethylmonoarsinic+acid+(DMMTAV)-induced+toxicity+obtained+from+in+vitro+reaction+of+DMMTAV+with+glutathione.">A novel metabolic activation associated with glutathione in dimethylmonoarsinic acid (DMMTAV)-induced toxicity obtained from in vitro reaction of DMMTAV with glutathione.</a> J. trace Elem. Med. Biol. 33, 87-94 (2016).</li></ol>

The developed protocol has clarified critical steps that previous studies1,3,4,8,15 omitted or abbreviated, which may have led to difficulties with or failure during DMMTAV and DMDTAV synthesis. As DMMTAV is oxidation-sensitive1,5, chemical reagents for its synthesis we...

Since dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV) has been demonstrated to exhibit both acute toxicity and genotoxicity due to undergoing methylation and thiolation upon ingestion1,2, the metabolic pathway of arsenic thiolation has been intensively studied both in vitro and in vivo3,4 as well as in environmental media (e.g., landfill leachate)5,6. Previous studies have found both reduced and thiolated analogs of DMAV in living cells, for example, dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII), dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV), and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV)7,8,9, with dimethylated thioarsenicals such as DMMTAV exhibiting greater toxicity than other known inorganic or organic arsenicals10. The abundance of highly toxic thioarsenicals has serious environmental implications, since they may pose a risk to humans and the environment under highly sulfidic conditions11. However, the mechanisms of DMMTAV and DMDTAV (trans)formation and their fates in environmental media still require further study. Thus, the quantitative analysis of thioarsenicals is required to improve understanding of the environmental effects of DMMTAV and DMDTAV.
Although standard chemicals are the key requirement for quantitative analysis, the standards of DMMTAV and DMDTAV are difficult to obtain by replicating previous studies, owing to the high risk of species transformation into other species and unstandardized synthesis procedures12. Moreover, the methods referenced have limitations that may lead to practical difficulties in synthesizing the standard chemicals and performing quantitative analysis. DMMTAV and DMDTAV are commonly prepared by mixing DMAV, Na2S, and H2SO4 in a certain molar ratio1 or bubbling H2S gas through a solution of DMAV 13,14. The bubbling method features substitution of oxygen by sulfur using a direct supply of H2S gas, which, is highly toxic and difficult to control for an inexperienced user. Conversely, the above mixing method1, widely used for the qualitative analysis of DMMTAV and DMDTAV in environmental sudies5,6,12, features the thiolation of DMAV with H2S generated by mixing Na2S and H2SO4 and produces DMMTAV and DMDTAV, allowing easier stoichiometric control to produce target chemicals, as compared to the direct use of H2S gas.
The reference mixing method procedures1,3,4,8,15 mentioned in this study exhibit limitations in some of their critical experimental steps, which might lead to experimental failure. For example, the details of specific solvent (i.e., deionized water) preparation and the extraction and crystallization of the synthesized arsenicals are over-abbreviated or not described in sufficient detail. Such dispersed and limited information on procedural steps might lead to the inconsistent formation of thioarsenicals and unreliable quantification analysis. Therefore, the modified protocol developed herein describes the synthesis of DMMTAV and DMDTAV stock solutions with quantitative species separation analysis.

<table width="712">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">Cacodylic acid</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">20835-10G-F</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Sodium sulfide nonahydrate</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">S2006-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">Sulfuric acid 96%</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">J.T.Baker</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">0000011478</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">Ammonium acetate</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">A7262-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Formic acid 98%</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Wako Pure Chemical Industries, Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">066-00461</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">Diethyl ether (Extra Pure)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Junsei Chemical</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">33475-0380</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Adapter cap for 60 mL Bond Elut catridges</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">12131004</td>
			<td>Syringe type of SPE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">Bond Elut C18 cartridge</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">14256031</td>
			<td>Syringe type of SPE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="width:179px;height:21px;">HyPURITY C-18</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">22105-254630</td>
			<td>5 um, 125 x 4.6 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Glovebox</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Chungae-chun, Rep. of Korea</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td>Customized&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Agilent 1260 Infinity Bio-inert LC</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">DEAB600252, DEACH00245</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="width:179px;height:42px;">Agilent Technologies 7700 Series ICP-MS</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">JP12031510</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="width:179px;height:63px;">Finnigan LCQ Deca XP MAX Mass Spectrometer System</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Thermo Electron Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">LDM10627</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of dmmtav and dmdtav using dmav for environmental applications: synthesis, purification, and confirmation

Dimethylated thioarsenicals such as dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV), which are produced by the metabolic pathway of dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV) thiolation, have been recently found in the environment as well as human organs. DMMTAV and DMDTAV can be quantified to determine the ecological effects of dimethylated thioarsenicals and their stability in environmental media. The synthesis method for these compounds is unstandardized, making replicating previous studies challenging. Furthermore, there is a lack of information about storage techniques, including storage of compounds without species transformation. Moreover, because only limited information about synthesis methods is available, there may be experimental difficulties in synthesizing standard chemicals and performing quantitative analysis. The protocol presented herein provides a practically modified synthesis method for the dimethylated thioarsenicals, DMMTAV and DMDTAV, and will help in the quantification of species separation analysis using high performance liquid chromatography in conjunction with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS). The experimental steps of this procedure were modified by focusing on the preparation of chemical reagents, filtration methods, and storage.

Since DMMTAV has been mistakenly prepared by the DMAIII synthesis method19, verification of synthesized DMMTAV and DMDTAV is a critical step for synthesis and extraction and determining the ideal standard chemical materials. Synthesized chemicals can be verified by the peak of DMMTAV (MW 154 g&#183;mol-1) and DMDTAV (MW 170 g&#183;mol-1) mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) using...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation at JoVE.com

Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation

This article presents modified experimental protocols for dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV) synthesis, inducing dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV) thiolation through mixing of DMAV, Na2S, and H2SO4. The modified protocol provides an experimental guideline, thereby overcoming limitations of the synthesis steps that could have caused experimental failures in quantitative analysis.

Preparation of DMMTAV and DMDTAV Using DMAV for Environmental Applications: Synthesis, Purification, and Confirmation

Dimethylated thioarsenicals such as dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTAV), which are produced by the metabolic ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to synthesize, purify and isolate stable dimethyl monothiol arsenic acid and dimethyl dithioarsenic acid for use as standards in quantitative speciation analysis of thioarsenicals. This experimental guideline can help address key issues in quantitative thioarsenical analysis such as unreliability caused by errors in critical steps of the synthesis of thioarsenical standards. The main advantage of this modified technique is that it produces stable chemical standards that can be used to quantify thioarsenical content in samples.To begin the DMMTA synthesis in a fume hood prepare solutions of dimethylmonothioarsinic acid, sodium sulfide and sulfuric acid in deionized water purged for 30 minutes with nitrogen gas. Add the DMA solution to the sodium sulfide solution. Rinse the DMA solution container with 10 milliliters of N2 purged water and add the rinse to the mixture.Note the time at which the solutions were combined. Connect a three hole rubber stopper fitted with glass tubes to a nitrogen gas line. Stopper the flask and immediately begin flowing nitrogen gas through the flask ensuring that the solution does not splash under the flow then use acid resistant tubing to connect a 50 milliliter syringe containing the sulfuric acid solution to another of the glass tubes.Slowly add the sulfuric acid solution, four to five milliliters at a time drop wise to obtain a cloudy white solution. Once the sulfuric acid has been added and one hour has elapsed since the DMA and sodium sulfide solutions were initially combined transfer the reaction mixture to separatory funnel containing 200 milliliters of diethyl ether. Shake the funnel for five to 10 minutes while regularly venting the funnel.Collect the aqueous layer in a beaker and then collect the organic layer containing the DMMTA in a separate bottle. Extract the DMMTA from the aqueous layer with 200 milliliter portions of diethyl ether three more times then wash the combined ether layers with 100 milliliters of N2 purge deionized water. Collect the washed ethyl layer in a glass crystallizing dish and transfer the solution to a nitrogen filled glovebox.Allow the solvent to evaporate under a flowing nitrogen atmosphere to obtain DMMTA as a white crystalline precipitate. Measure and record the mass of the crystallized DMMTA then dissolve the solid in 50 milliliters of N2 purged deionized water. Filter the solution through a 0.2 micron syringe filter and store the solution at four degrees celsius in the dark.To begin the DMDTA synthesis prepare solutions of DMA, sodium sulfide and sulfuric acid in deionized water. Combine the the DMA and sodium sulfide solutions in a 250 milliliter flask. Rinse the container of DMA solution with 10 milliliters of deionized water and add the rinse to the flask.Slowly add the sulfuric acid solution to the mixture four to five milliliters at a time drop wise. Monitor the appearance of the mixture as it becomes white to yellow and cloudy. Allow the mixture to sit uncovered overnight.Then, pass the reaction mixture through C18 silicon based solid phase extraction cartridge to trap the DMDTA on the resin. Elute the DMDTA into a glass crystallizing dish with about one liter of a 10 millimolar pH 6.3 ammonium acetate solution. Transfer the eluate to a nitrogen filled glovebox.Allow the solvent to evaporate under a flowing nitrogen atmosphere to obtain crystallized DMDTA as a white precipitate. Measure and record the mass of the crystallized DMDTA. Dissolve the solid in 50 milliliters of deionized water and filter the solution through a 0.2 micron syringe filter.Store the solution at four degrees celsius in the absence of light. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was used to verify the successful synthesis of DMMTA and DMDTA from DMA and to confirm that dimethylarsinic acid was not the major product. HPLCICPMS also showed that DMA starting material had been consumed and that DMMTA and DMDTA had been produced.After being stored at four degrees Celsius in the absence of light for 13 weeks, the DMMTA and DMDTA solutions showed only a 2.2 and a 5.8 percent change in the species distributions respectively. Before attempting this procedure remember to read the reference material and safety data. It is important to understand the mechanism of DMMTA and DMDTA synthesis when preforming this experiment.

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Waste Water Derived Electroactive Microbial Biofilms: Growth, Maintenance, and Basic Characterization

The growth of anodic electroactive microbial biofilms from waste water inocula in a fed-batch reactor is demonstrated using a three-electrode setup controlled by a potentiostat. Thereby the use of potentiostats allows an exact adjustment of the electrode potential and ensures reproducible microbial culturing conditions. During growth the current production is monitored using chronoamperometry (CA). Based on these data the maximum current density (jmax) and the coulombic efficiency (CE) are discussed as measures for characterization of the bioelectrocatalytic performance. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), a nondestructive, i.e. noninvasive, method, is used to study the extracellular electron transfer (EET) of electroactive bacteria. CV measurements are performed on anodic biofilm electrodes in the presence of the microbial substrate, i.e. turnover conditions, and in the absence of the substrate, i.e. nonturnover conditions, using different scan rates. Subsequently, data analysis is exemplified and fundamental thermodynamic parameters of the microbial EET are derived and explained: peak potential (Ep), peak current density (jp), formal potential (Ef) and peak separation (&#916;Ep). Additionally the limits of the method and the state-of the art data analysis are addressed. Thereby this video-article shall provide a guide for the basic experimental steps and the fundamental data analysis.

Chronoamperometric growth of anodic electroactive microbial biofilms in a fed-batch reactor using a three-electrode setup, controlled by a potentiostat, is demonstrated. The extracellular electron transfer is characterized using cyclic voltammetry in the presence of the electron donor and in the absence of the electron donor. Fundamental data analysis is demonstrated.

The growth of anodic electroactive microbial biofilms from waste water inocula in a fed-batch reactor is demonstrated using a three-electrode setup ...

A Whole Cell Bioreporter Approach to Assess Transport and Bioavailability of Organic Contaminants in Water Unsaturated Systems

Bioavailability of contaminants is a prerequisite for their effective biodegradation in soil. The average bulk concentration of a contaminant, however, is not an appropriate measure for its availability; bioavailability rather depends on the dynamic interplay of potential mass transfer (flux) of a compound to a microbial cell and the capacity of the latter to degrade the compound. In water-unsaturated parts of the soil, mycelia have been shown to overcome bioavailability limitations by actively transporting and mobilizing organic compounds over the range of centimeters. Whereas the extent of mycelia-based transport can be quantified easily by chemical means, verification of the contaminant-bioavailability to bacterial cells requires a biological method. Addressing this constraint, we chose the PAH fluorene (FLU) as a model compound and developed a water unsaturated model microcosm linking a spatially separated FLU point source and the FLU degrading bioreporter bacterium Burkholderia sartisoli RP037-mChe by a mycelial network of Pythium ultimum. Since the bioreporter expresses eGFP in response of the PAH flux to the cell, bacterial FLU exposure and degradation could be monitored directly in the microcosms via confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). CLSM and image analyses revealed a significant increase of the eGFP expression in the presence of P. ultimum compared to controls without mycelia or FLU thus indicating FLU bioavailability to bacteria after mycelia-mediated transport. CLSM results were supported by chemical analyses in identical microcosms. The developed microcosm proved suitable to investigate contaminant bioavailability and to concomitantly visualize the involved bacteria-mycelial interactions.

A whole cell bioreporter assay with Burkholderia sartisoli RP037-mChe was developed to detect fractions of an organic contaminant (i.e., fluorene) available for bacterial degradation after active transport by mycelia bridging air-filled pores in a water unsaturated model system.

Bioavailability of contaminants is a prerequisite for their effective biodegradation in soil. The average bulk concentration of a contaminant, however, is ...

Preparation and Testing of Impedance-based Fluidic Biochips with RTgill-W1 Cells for Rapid Evaluation of Drinking Water Samples for Toxicity

This manuscript describes how to prepare fluidic biochips with Rainbow trout gill epithelial (RTgill-W1) cells for use in a field portable water toxicity sensor. A monolayer of RTgill-W1 cells forms on the sensing electrodes enclosed within the biochips. The biochips are then used for testing in a field portable electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) device designed for rapid toxicity testing of drinking water. The manuscript further describes how to run a toxicity test using the prepared biochips. A control water sample and the test water sample are mixed with pre-measured powdered media and injected into separate channels of the biochip. Impedance readings from the sensing electrodes in each of the biochip channels are measured and compared by an automated statistical software program. The screen on the ECIS instrument will indicate either "Contamination Detected" or "No Contamination Detected" within an hour of sample injection. Advantages are ease of use and rapid response to a broad spectrum of inorganic and organic chemicals at concentrations that are relevant to human health concerns, as well as the long-term stability of stored biochips in a ready state for testing. Limitations are the requirement for cold storage of the biochips and limited sensitivity to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides. Applications for this toxicity detector are for rapid field-portable testing of drinking water supplies by Army Preventative Medicine personnel or for use at municipal water treatment facilities.

This manuscript describes how to prepare fluidic biochips with Rainbow trout gill epithelial cells for use in a field portable electric cell-substrate impedance sensor. The protocol for running a rapid drinking water toxicity test with the sensor is also described.

This manuscript describes how to prepare fluidic biochips with Rainbow trout gill epithelial (RTgill-W1) cells for use in a field portable water toxicity ...

The Benthic Exchange of O2, N2 and Dissolved Nutrients Using Small Core Incubations

The measurement of sediment-water exchange of gases and solutes in aquatic sediments provides data valuable for understanding the role of sediments in nutrient and gas cycles. After cores with intact sediment-water interfaces are collected, they are submerged in incubation tanks and kept under aerobic conditions at in situ temperatures. To initiate a time course of overlying water chemistry, cores are sealed without bubbles using a top cap with a suspended stirrer. Time courses of 4-7 sample points are used to determine the rate of sediment water exchange. Artificial illumination simulates day-time conditions for shallow photosynthetic sediments, and in conjunction with dark incubations can provide net exchanges on a daily basis. The net measurement of N2 is made possible by sampling a time course of dissolved gas concentrations, with high precision mass spectrometric analysis of N2:Ar ratios providing a means to measure N2 concentrations. We have successfully applied this approach to lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, wetlands and storm water ponds, and with care, this approach provides valuable information on biogeochemical balances in aquatic ecosystems.

The Benthic Exchange of O2, N2 and Dissolved Nutrients Using Small Core Incubations

Here, we present small core incubations for the measurement of sediment-water gas and solute exchange. These will provide reliable measurements of sediment-water exchange that assess the role of sediment in influencing biological and biogeochemical processes in aquatic ecosystems.

The measurement of sediment-water exchange of gases and solutes in aquatic sediments provides data valuable for understanding the role of sediments in ...

Resurrection of Dormant Daphnia magna: Protocol and Applications

Long-term studies enable the identification of eco-evolutionary processes that occur over extended time periods. In addition, they provide key empirical data that may be used in predictive modelling to forecast evolutionary responses of natural ecosystems to future environmental changes. However, excluding a few exceptional cases, long-term studies are scarce because of logistic difficulties associated with accessing temporal samples. Temporal dynamics are frequently studied in the laboratory or in controlled mesocosm experiments with exceptional studies that reconstruct the evolution of natural populations in the wild.
Here, a standard operating procedure (SOP) is provided to revive or resurrect dormant Daphnia magna, a widespread zooplankton keystone species in aquatic ecosystems, to dramatically advance the state-of-the-art longitudinal data collection in natural systems. The field of Resurrection Ecology was defined in 1999 by Kerfoot and co-workers, even though the first attempts at hatching diapausing zooplankton eggs date back to the late 1980s. Since Kerfoot&#39;s seminal paper, the methodology of resurrecting zooplankton species has been increasingly frequently applied, though propagated among laboratories only via direct knowledge transfer. Here, an SOP is described that provides a step-by-step protocol on the practice of resurrecting dormant Daphnia magna eggs.
Two key studies are provided in which the fitness response of resurrected Daphnia magna populations to warming is measured, capitalizing on the ability to study historical and modern populations in the same settings. Finally, the application of next generation sequencing technologies to revived or still dormant stages is discussed. These technologies provide unprecedented power in dissecting the processes and mechanisms of evolution if applied to populations that have experienced changes in selection pressure over time.

Resurrection of Dormant Daphnia magna: Protocol and Applications

Long-term studies are essential to understanding the process of evolution and the mechanisms of adaptation. Generally, these studies require commitments beyond the life-time of researchers. Here, a powerful method is described that dramatically advances state-of-the-art data collection to generate longitudinal data in natural systems.

Long-term studies enable the identification of eco-evolutionary processes that occur over extended time periods. In addition, they provide key empirical ...

Composition and Distribution Analysis of Bioaerosols Under Different Environmental Conditions

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, we described a protocol for multiple analyses of the biological compositions in environmental PM. Five experiments are presented: (1) PM number monitoring by using a laser particle counter; (2) PM collection by using a cyclonic aerosol sampler; (3) PM collection by using a high-volume air sampler with filters; (4) culturable microbes collection by the Andersen six-stage sampler; and (5) detection of biological composition of environmental PM by bacterial 16SrDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing. We selected hazy days and a livestock farm as two typical examples of the application in this protocol. In this study, these two sampling methods, cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler, showed different sampling efficiency. The cyclonic aerosol sampler performed much better in terms of collecting bacteria, while these two methods showed the same efficiency in collecting fungi. Filter samplers can work under low temperature conditions while cyclonic aerosol samplers have a sampling limitation for temperature. A solid impacting sampler, such as an Andersen six-stage sampler, can be used to sample bioaerosols directly into the culture medium, which increases the survival rate of culturable microorganisms. However, this method mainly relies on culture while more than 99% of microbes cannot be cultured. DNA extracted from the culturable bacteria collected by the Andersen six-stage sampler and samples collected by cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler were detected by bacterial 16S rDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing.All the methods above may have wide application in many fields of study, such as environmental monitoring and airborne pathogen detection. From these results, we can conclude that these methods can be used under different conditions and may help other researchers further explore the health impacts of environmental bioaerosols.

Understanding the biological composition of environmental particulate matter is important for the study of its significant impacts on human health and disease spread. Here, we used three types of bioaerosol sampling methods and a biological analysis of airborne microbes to better explore airborne microbial communities under different environmental conditions.

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans for Studying Trans- and Multi-Generational Effects of Toxicants

Information about toxicities of chemicals are essential in their application and waste management. For chemicals at low concentrations, the long-term effects are very important in judging their consequences in the environment and on human health. In demonstrating long-term influences, effects of chemicals over generations in recent studies provide new insight. Here, we describe protocols for studying effects of chemicals over multiple generations using free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Two aspects are presented: (1) trans-generational (TG) and (2) multi-generational effect studies, the latter of which is separated to multi-generational exposure (MGE) and multi-generational residual (MGR) effect studies. The TG effect study is robust with a simple purpose to determine whether chemical exposure to parents can result in any residual consequences on offspring. After the effects are measured on parents, sodium hypochlorite solutions are used to kill the parents and keep the offspring so as to facilitate effect measurement on the offspring. The TG effect study is used to determine whether the offspring are affected when their parent is exposed to the pollutants. The MGE and MGR effect study is systematical used to determine whether continuous generational exposure can result in adaptive responses in offspring over generations. Careful pick-up and transfer are used to distinguish generations to facilitate effect measurement on each generation. We also combined protocols to measure locomotion behavior, reproduction, lifespan, biochemical and gene expression changes. Some example experiments are also presented to illustrate the trans- and multi-generational effect studies.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans for Studying Trans- and Multi-Generational Effects of Toxicants

Trans- and multi-generational effects of persistent chemicals are essential in judging their long-term consequences in the environment and on the human health. We provide novel detailed methods for studying trans- and multi-generational effects using free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

Information about toxicities of chemicals are essential in their application and waste management. For chemicals at low concentrations, the long-term ...

Studying Neurobehavioral Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Zebrafish Larvae

Recent years more and more environmental pollutants have been proved neurotoxic, especially at the early development stages of organisms. Zebrafish larvae are a preeminent model for the neurobehavioral study of environmental pollutants. Here, a detailed experimental protocol is provided for the evaluation of the neurotoxicity of environmental pollutants using zebrafish larvae, including the collection of the embryos, the exposure process, neurobehavioral indicators, the test process, and data analysis. Also, the culture environment, exposure process, and experimental conditions are discussed to ensure the success of the assay. The protocol has been used in the development of psychopathic drugs, research on environmental neurotoxic pollutants, and can be optimized to make corresponding studies or be helpful for mechanistic studies. The protocol demonstrates a clear operation process for studying neurobehavioral effects on zebrafish larvae and can reveal the effects of various neurotoxic substances or pollutants.

A detailed experimental protocol is presented in this paper for the evaluation of neurobehavioral toxicity of environmental pollutants using a zebrafish larvae model, including the exposure process and tests for neurobehavioral indicators.

Recent years more and more environmental pollutants have been proved neurotoxic, especially at the early development stages of organisms. Zebrafish larvae ...

Development and Testing of Species-specific Quantitative PCR Assays for Environmental DNA Applications

New, non-invasive methods for detecting and monitoring species presence are being developed to aid in fisheries and wildlife conservation management. The use of environmental DNA (eDNA) samples for detecting macrobiota is one such group of methods that is rapidly becoming popular and being implemented in national management programs. Here we focus on the development of species-specific targeted assays for probe-based quantitative PCR (qPCR) applications. Using probe-based qPCR offers greater specificity than is possible with primers alone. Furthermore, the ability to quantify the amount of DNA in a sample can be useful in our understanding of the ecology of eDNA and the interpretation of eDNA detection patterns in the field. Careful consideration is needed in the development and testing of these assays to ensure the sensitivity and specificity of detecting the target species from an environmental sample. In this protocol we will delineate the steps needed to design and test probe-based assays for the detection of a target species; including creation of sequence databases, assay design, assay selection and optimization, testing assay performance, and field validation. Following these steps will help achieve an efficient, sensitive, and specific assay that can be used with confidence. We demonstrate this process with our assay designed for populations of the mucket (Actinonaias ligamentina), a freshwater mussel species found in the Clinch River, USA.

Environmental DNA assays require rigorous design, testing, optimization and validation before the collection of field data can begin. Here, we present a protocol to take users through each step of designing a species-specific, probe-based qPCR assay for the detection and quantification of a target species DNA from environmental samples.

New, non-invasive methods for detecting and monitoring species presence are being developed to aid in fisheries and wildlife conservation management. The ...

Bioprospecting of Extremophilic Microorganisms to Address Environmental Pollution

Geothermal springs are rich in various metal ions due to the interaction between rock and water that takes place in the deep aquifer. Moreover, due to seasonality variation in pH and temperature, fluctuation in element composition is periodically observed within these extreme environments, influencing the environmental microbial communities. Extremophilic microorganisms that thrive in volcanic thermal vents have developed resistance mechanisms to handle several metal ions present in the environment, thus taking part to complex metal biogeochemical cycles. Moreover, extremophiles and their products have found an extensive foothold in the market, and this holds true especially for their enzymes. In this context, their characterization is functional to the development of biosystems and bioprocesses for environmental monitoring and bioremediation. To date, the isolation and cultivation under laboratory conditions of extremophilic microorganisms still represent a bottleneck for fully exploiting their biotechnological potential. This work describes a streamlined protocol for the isolation of thermophilic microorganisms from hot springs as well as their genotypical and phenotypical identification through the following steps: (1) Sampling of microorganisms from geothermal sites ("Pisciarelli", a volcanic area of Campi Flegrei in Naples, Italy); (2) Isolation of heavy metal resistant microorganisms; (3) Identification of microbial isolates; (4) Phenotypical characterization of the isolates. The methodologies described in this work might be generally applied also for the isolation of microorganisms from other extreme environments.

The isolation of heavy metal-resistant microbes from geothermal springs is a hot topic for the development of bioremediation and environmental monitoring biosystems. This study provides a methodological approach for isolating and identifying heavy metal tolerant bacteria from hot springs.

Geothermal springs are rich in various metal ions due to the interaction between rock and water that takes place in the deep aquifer. Moreover, due to ...