The present research work was financially sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan under the grant NSC 94-2611-E-022-001, NSC 95-2221-E-022-018, NSC 96-2221-E-022-015MY3 and NSC 97-2221-E-022-013-MY3.

NOTE: The details of rotating test facilities, data acquisition, data processing and the heat transfer test module emulating an internal cooling channel of a gas turbine rotor blade are in our previous works29,30,31,32.
1. Preparation of Heat Transfer Tests
<ol>
	<li>Formulate the experimental conditions in terms of Re, Ro and Bu from the...

<ol>
	<li>Morris, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Heat transfer and fluid flow in rotating coolant channels. , ISBN 0471101214 (1981).</li><li>Morris, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rotating+facility+to+study+heat+transfer+in+the+cooling+passage+of+turbine+rotor+blades.">A rotating facility to study heat transfer in the cooling passage of turbine rotor blades.</a> Journal of Power and Energy. 210 (1), 55-63 (1996).</li><li>Wagner, J. H., Johnson, B. V., Graziani, R. A., Yeh, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+passages+with+smooth+walls+and+radially+outward+flow.">Heat transfer in rotating passages with smooth walls and radially outward flow.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 113 (1), 42-51 (1991).</li><li>Wagner, J. H., Johnson, B. V., Kopper, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+serpentine+passages+with+smooth+walls.">Heat transfer in rotating serpentine passages with smooth walls.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 113 (3), 321-330 (1991).</li><li>Wagner, J. H., Johnson, B. V., Steuber, G. D., Yeh, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+serpentine+passages+with+trips+normal+to+the+flow.">Heat transfer in rotating serpentine passages with trips normal to the flow.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 114 (4), 847-857 (1992).</li><li>Johnson, B. V., Wagner, J. H., Steuber, G. D., Yeh, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+serpentine+passages+with+selected+model+orientations+for+smooth+or+skewed+trip+walls.">Heat transfer in rotating serpentine passages with selected model orientations for smooth or skewed trip walls.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 116 (4), 738-744 (1992).</li><li>Hwang, G. J., Tzeng, S. C., Mao, C. P., Soong, C. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+radially+rotating+four-pass+serpentine+channel+with+staggered+half-v+rib+turbulators.">Heat transfer in a radially rotating four-pass serpentine channel with staggered half-v rib turbulators.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 123 (1), 39-50 (2001).</li><li>Azad, G. S., Uddin, M. J., Han, J. C., Moon, H. K., Glezer, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+two-pass+rectangular+rotating+channel+with+45-deg+angled+rib+turbulators.">Heat transfer in a two-pass rectangular rotating channel with 45-deg angled rib turbulators.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 124 (2), 251-259 (2002).</li><li>Griffith, T. S., Al-Hadhrami, L., Han, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+rectangular+cooling+channels+(AR=4)+with+angled+ribs.">Heat transfer in rotating rectangular cooling channels (AR=4) with angled ribs.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 124 (4), 617-625 (2002).</li><li>Al-Hadhrami, L., Griffith, T. S., Han, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+two-pass+rotating+rectangular+channels+(AR=2)+with+five+different+orientations+of+45+deg+V-shaped+rib+turbulators.">Heat transfer in two-pass rotating rectangular channels (AR=2) with five different orientations of 45 deg V-shaped rib turbulators.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 125 (2), 232-242 (2003).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. M., Hung, J. H., Yeh, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+radially+rotating+square-sectioned+duct+with+two+opposite+walls+roughened+by+45+deg+staggered+ribs+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer in a radially rotating square-sectioned duct with two opposite walls roughened by 45 deg staggered ribs at high rotation numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 129 (2), 188-199 (2007).</li><li>Zhou, F., Lagrone, J., Acharya, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Internal+cooling+in+4:1+AR+passages+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Internal cooling in 4:1 AR passages at high rotation numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 129 (12), 1666-1675 (2007).</li><li>Liu, Y. H., Huh, M., Han, J. C., Chopra, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+two-pass+rectangular+channel+(AR=1:4)+under+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer in a two-pass rectangular channel (AR=1:4) under high rotation numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 130 (8), (2008).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. M., Chiou, S. F., Chang, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+high-speed+rotating+trapezoidal+duct+with+rib-roughened+surfaces+and+air+bleeds+from+the+wall+on+the+apical+side.">Heat transfer in high-speed rotating trapezoidal duct with rib-roughened surfaces and air bleeds from the wall on the apical side.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 130 (6), (2008).</li><li>Wright, L. M., Liu, Y. H., Han, J. C., Chopra, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+trailing+edge,+wedge-shaped+cooling+channels+under+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer in trailing edge, wedge-shaped cooling channels under high rotation numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. 130 (7), 1-11 (2008).</li><li>Liou, T. M., Chen, M. Y., Tsai, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluid+flow+and+heat+transfer+in+a+rotating+two-pass+square+duct+with+in-line+90-deg+ribs.">Fluid flow and heat transfer in a rotating two-pass square duct with in-line 90-deg ribs.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 124 (2), 260-268 (2002).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. M., Yang, T. L., Hong, G. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+radially+rotating+pin-fin+channel+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer in radially rotating pin-fin channel at high rotation numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 132 (2), (2010).</li><li>Rallabandi, A., Lei, J., Han, J. C., Azad, S., Lee, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+measurements+in+rotating+blade-shape+serpentine+coolant+passage+with+ribbed+walls+at+high+Reynolds+numbers.">Heat transfer measurements in rotating blade-shape serpentine coolant passage with ribbed walls at high Reynolds numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 136 (9), (2014).</li><li>Mayo, I., Arts, T., Ahmed, E. H., Parres, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-dimensional+heat+transfer+distribution+of+a+rotating+ribbed+channel+at+different+Reynolds+numbers.">Two-dimensional heat transfer distribution of a rotating ribbed channel at different Reynolds numbers.</a> ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 137 (3), (2015).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Yang, T. L., Liou, T. M., Fang, H. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+rotating+scale-roughened+trapezoidal+duct+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer in rotating scale-roughened trapezoidal duct at high rotation numbers.</a> Applied Thermal Engineering. 29 (8), 1682-1693 (2009).</li><li>Liou, T. M., Chang, S. W., Chen, J. S., Yang, T. L., Lan, Y. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+channel+aspect+ratio+on+heat+transfer+in+rotating+rectangular+ducts+with+skewed+ribs+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Influence of channel aspect ratio on heat transfer in rotating rectangular ducts with skewed ribs at high rotation numbers.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 52 (23), 5309-5322 (2009).</li><li>Huh, M., Liu, Y. H., Han, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+rib+height+on+heat+transfer+in+a+two+pass+rectangular+channel+(AR+=+1:4)+with+a+sharp+entrance+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Effect of rib height on heat transfer in a two pass rectangular channel (AR = 1:4) with a sharp entrance at high rotation numbers.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 52 (19), 4635-4649 (2009).</li><li>Xu, G., Li, Y., Deng, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+rib+spacing+on+heat+transfer+and+friction+in+a+rotating+two-pass+square+channel+with+asymmetrical+90-deg+rib+turbulators.">Effect of rib spacing on heat transfer and friction in a rotating two-pass square channel with asymmetrical 90-deg rib turbulators.</a> Applied Thermal Engineering. 80 (5), 386-395 (2015).</li><li>Tao, Z., Yang, M., Deng, H., Li, H., Tian, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+study+in+a+rotating+ribbed+two-pass+channel+with+engine-similar+cross+section+at+high+rotation+number.">Heat transfer study in a rotating ribbed two-pass channel with engine-similar cross section at high rotation number.</a> Applied Thermal Engineering. 106 (5), 681-696 (2016).</li><li>Li, Y., Deng, H., Tao, Z., Xu, G., Chen, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+characteristics+in+a+rotating+trailing+edge+internal+cooling+channel+with+two+coolant+inlets.">Heat transfer characteristics in a rotating trailing edge internal cooling channel with two coolant inlets.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 105 (2), 220-229 (2017).</li><li>Deng, H., Chen, Y., Tao, Z., Li, Y., Qiu, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+two-inlet+rotating+rectangular+channel+with+side-wall+fluid+extraction.">Heat transfer in a two-inlet rotating rectangular channel with side-wall fluid extraction.</a> International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 105 (2), 525-534 (2017).</li><li>You, R., Li, H., Tao, Z., Wei, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+investigation+in+a+smooth+rotating+channel+with+thermography+liquid+crystal.">Heat transfer investigation in a smooth rotating channel with thermography liquid crystal.</a> ASME Turbo Expo. GT2016-56413, Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition: Heat Transfer. 5 (B), V05BT16A006 1~10 (2016).</li><li>Morris, W. D., Chang, S. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+experimental+study+of+heat+transfer+in+a+simulated+turbine+blade+cooling+passage.">An experimental study of heat transfer in a simulated turbine blade cooling passage.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 40 (15), 3703-3716 (1997).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. -. M., Po, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coriolis+and+rotating+buoyancy+effect+on+detailed+heat+transfer+distributions+in+a+two-pass+square+channel+roughened+by+45&#176;+ribs+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Coriolis and rotating buoyancy effect on detailed heat transfer distributions in a two-pass square channel roughened by 45&#176; ribs at high rotation numbers.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 53 (7), 1349-1363 (2010).</li><li>Wang, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Heat transfer in rotating twin-pass trapezoidal-sectioned passage with two opposite walls roughened by 45 degree ribs. , (2006).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Wu, P. -. S., Chen, C. -. S., Weng, C. -. C., Jiang, Y. -. R., Shih, S. -. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+performance+of+radially+rotating+two-pass+S-shaped+zig-zag+channel.">Thermal performance of radially rotating two-pass S-shaped zig-zag channel.</a> International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 115 (B), 1011-1031 (2017).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Lees, A. W., Liou, T. -. M., Hong, G. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+of+a+radially+rotating+furrowed+channel+with+two+opposite+skewed+sinusoidal+wavy+walls.">Heat transfer of a radially rotating furrowed channel with two opposite skewed sinusoidal wavy walls.</a> International Journal of Thermal Sciences. 49 (5), 769-785 (2010).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. -. M., Lee, T. -. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+of+a+rotating+rectangular+channel+with+a+diamond-shaped+pin-fin+array+at+high+rotation+numbers.">Heat transfer of a rotating rectangular channel with a diamond-shaped pin-fin array at high rotation numbers.</a> Journal of Turbomachinery Transactions of the ASME. 135 (4), (2013).</li><li>Morris, W. D., Chang, S. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+in+a+radially+rotating+smooth-walled+tube.">Heat transfer in a radially rotating smooth-walled tube.</a> The Aeronautical Journal. 102 (1015), 277-285 (1998).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

While the endwall temperatures of a rotating channel are detected by an infrared thermography system, the fluid temperatures are measured by thermocouples. As the alternative magnetic field of an AC motor that drives a rotating rig induces electrical potential to interfere the thermocouple measurements, the DC motor must be adopted to drive a rotating test rig.
The fluid temperature distribution over the exit plane of a heated channel is not uniform. At least five thermocouples on the existing...

While thermodynamic laws dictate the improved specific power and thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine by elevating the turbine entry temperature, several hot engine components, such as turbine blades, are prone to thermal damage. Internal cooling of a gas turbine rotor blade permits a turbine entry temperature in excess of the temperature limits of the creep resistance of the blade material. However, the configurations of the internal cooling channels must comply with the blade profile. In particular, the coolant rotates within the rotor blade. With such harsh thermal conditions for a running gas turbine rotor blade, an effective blade cooling scheme is crucial to ensure the structure&#39;s integrity. Thus, the local heat transfer properties for a rotating channel are important for the efficient usage of the limited coolant flow available. The acquisition of useful heat transfer data that are applicable to the design of the internal coolant passages at realistic engine conditions is of primary importance when an experimental method is developed for measuring the heat transfer properties of a simulated cooling passage inside a gas turbine rotor blade.
Rotation at a speed above 10,000 rpm considerably alters the cooling performance of a rotating channel inside a gas turbine rotor blade. The identification of engine conditions for such a rotating channel is permissible using the similarity law. With rotation, the dimensionless groups that control the transport phenomena inside a radially rotating channel can be revealed by deriving the flow equations relative to a rotating frame of reference. Morris1 has derived the momentum conservation equation of flow relative to a rotating frame of reference as:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq1.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(1)
In equation (1), the local fluid velocity, v&#772;, with the position vector, r&#772;, relative to a frame of reference rotating at the angular velocity, &#969;, is affected by the Coriolis acceleration in terms of 2(&#969;&#215;v&#772;), the decoupled centripetal buoyancy force, &#946;(T-Tref)(&#969;&#215;&#969;&#215;r&#772;), the driven piezo-metric pressure gradient, <img alt="Equation 16" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq16.jpg" />, and the fluid dynamic viscosity, &#957;. The referenced fluid density, &#961;ref, is referred to a pre-defined fluid reference temperature Tref, which is typical of the local fluid bulk temperature for experiments. If the irreversible conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy is negligible, the energy conservation equation is reduced to:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq2.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(2)
The first term of equation (2) is obtained by treating the specific enthalpy to be directly related to the local fluid temperature, T, via the constant specific heat, Cp. As the perturbation of fluid density caused by the variation of fluid temperature in a heated rotating channel provides considerable influence on the motion of fluids when it links with the centripetal acceleration in equation (1), the fluid velocity and temperature fields in an axially rotating channel are coupled. Also, both Coriolis and centripetal accelerations vary simultaneously as the rotating speed is adjusted. Thus, the effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy on the fields of fluid velocity and temperature are naturally coupled.
Equations (1) and (2) in the dimensionless forms disclose the flow parameters that govern the heat convection in a rotating channel. With a basically uniform heat flux imposed on a rotating channel, the local fluid bulk temperature, Tb, increases linearly in the streamwise direction, s, from the reference inlet level, Tref. The local fluid bulk temperature is determined as Tref + &#964;s, where &#964; is the gradient of the fluid bulk temperature in the direction of flow. Substitutions of the following dimensionless parameters of:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq3.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(3)
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq4.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(4)
<img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq5.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(5)
<img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq6.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(6)
<img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq7.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(7)
into equations (1) and (2), where Vmean, N and d respectively stand for the mean flow through velocity, rotating velocity and channel hydraulic diameter, the dimensionless flow momentum and energy equations are derived as equations (8) and (9) respectively.
<img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq8.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(8)
<img alt="Equation 9" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq9.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(9)
Evidently, &#951; in equation (9) is a function of Re, Ro, and Bu = Ro2&#946;&#964;dR, which are respectively referred to as Reynolds, rotation and buoyancy numbers. The Rossby number that quantifies the ratio between inertial and Coriolis forces is equivalent to the inverse rotation number in equation (8).
When Tb is calculated as Tref + &#964;s in a rotating channel subject to a uniform heat flux, the &#964; value can be alternatively evaluated as Qf/(mCpL) in which Qf, m and L are the convective heating power, coolant mass flow rate and channel length, respectively. Thus, the dimensionless local fluid bulk temperature, &#951;b, is equal to s/d and the dimensionless temperature at channel wall, &#951;w, yields [(Tw-Tb)/Qf][mCp][L/d]+s/d. With the convective heat transfer rate defined as Qf/(Tw-Tb), the dimensionless wall-to-fluid temperature difference, &#951;w-&#951;b, is convertible into the local Nusselt number via equation (10) in which &#950; is the dimensionless shape function of heating area and channel sectional area.
<img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq10.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(10)
With a set of predefined geometries and the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary conditions, the dimensionless groups controlling the local Nusselt number of a rotating channel are identified as:
<img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq11.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(11)
<img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq12.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(12)
<img alt="Equation 13" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq13.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(13)
With experimental tests, the adjustment of rotating speed, N, for varying Ro to generate the heat transfer data at different strengths of Coriolis forces inevitably changes the centripetal acceleration, and thus, the relative strength of rotating buoyancy. Moreover, a set of heat transfer data collected from a rotating channel is always subject to a finite degree of rotating buoyancy effect. To disclose the individual effects of Coriolis-force and buoyancy on the heat transfer performance of a rotating channel requires the uncoupling of the Ro and Bu effects on Nu properties through the post data processing procedure that is inclusive in the present experimental method.
The engine and laboratory flow conditions for a rotating channel inside a gas turbine rotor blade can be specified by the ranges of Re, Ro and Bu. The typical engine conditions for the coolant flow through a gas turbine rotor blade, as well as the construction and commissioning of the rotating test facility that allowed experiments to be performed near the actual engine conditions was reported by Morris2. Based on the realistic engine conditions summarized by Morris2, Figure 1 constructs the realistic operating conditions in terms of Re, Ro and Bu ranges for a rotating coolant channel in a gas turbine rotor blade. In Figure 1, the indication of an engine&#39;s worst condition is referred to as the engine running condition at the highest rotor speed and the highest density ratio. In Figure 1, the lower limit and worst engine operating conditions respectively emerge at the lowest and highest engine speeds. It is extremely difficult to measure the full-field Nu distribution of a rotating channel running at a real engine speed between 5000 and 20,000 rpm. However, based on the similarity law, laboratory-scale tests have been conducted at reduced rotating speeds but with several attempts to provide a full coverage of the real-engine Re, Ro and Bu ranges. As an innovative experimental method, the NASA HOST program3,4,5,6 adopted the high-pressure tests for increasing the fluid densities at the predefined Re in order to extend the Ro range by reducing the mean fluid velocity. In this regard, the specific relationships between Re, Ro and Bu for an ideal gas with a gas constant, Rc, and viscosity, &#956;, are related as:
<img alt="Equation 14" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq14.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(14)
<img alt="Equation 15" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq15.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(15)
To bring the laboratory conditions into the nominal correspondence with engine conditions seen in Figure 1, the rotating speed, N, coolant pressure, P, channel hydraulic diameter, d, rotating radius, R, and wall-to-fluid temperature difference, Tw-Tb, need to be controlled for matching the realistic Re, Ro and Bu ranges. Clearly, one of the most effective approaches to extend the Ro range is to increase channel hydraulic diameter, as Ro is proportional to d2. As the laboratory heat transfer test at realistic N is extremely difficult, the coolant pressure, P, is technically easier to be raised for extending Ro range; even if Ro is only proportional to P. Based on this theoretical background, the design philosophy of the present experimental method is to increase Ro by pressurizing the rotating test channel using the maximum channel hydraulic diameter allowed to fit into the rotating rig. Having increased the Ro range, the range of Bu is accordingly extended as Bu is proportional to Ro2. In Figure 1, the laboratory test conditions adopted to generate the heat transfer data of rotating channels are also included3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29. As indicated in Figure 1, the coverage of realistic engine conditions by the available heat transfer data is still limited, especially for the required Bu range. The open and the colored solid symbols depicted in Figure 1 are the pointed and full-field heat transfer experiments, respectively. As collected in Figure 1, most of the heat transfer data with cooling applications to gas turbine rotor blades1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,20,21,22,23,24,25,26 are point measurements using the thermocouple method. The wall conduction effects on measuring the wall conductive heat flux and the temperatures at fluid-wall interfaces undermine the quality of heat transfer data converted from the thermocouple measurements. Also, the heat transfer measurements1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,20,21,22,23,24,25,26 using the thermocouple method cannot detect the two-dimensional heat transfer variations over a rotating surface. With the present experimental method29,30,31,32, the detection of full-field Nusselt number distributions over the rotating channel wall is permissible. The minimization of wall conduction effect using 0.1 mm thick stainless-steel foils with Biot numbers &#62;&#62;1 to generate the heating power by the present experimental method permits the one-dimensional heat conduction from the heating foil to the coolant flow. In particular, the acquisition of full-field heat transfer data involving both Ro and Bu effects is not permissible using the transient liquid crystal technique and the thermocouple method. With the current steady-state liquid crystal thermography method19, the detectable temperature range of 35-55 &#176;C disables the generation of heat transfer data with realistic density ratios.
Using the flow parameters governing the heat convection in a rotating channel to demonstrate that the full coverage of realistic engine conditions seen in Figure 1 has not yet been achieved, so the need for acquiring the full-field heat transfer data at realistic engine conditions has been continuously urged. The present experimental method enables the generation of full-field heat transfer with both Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects detected. The protocols are aimed at assisting the investigators to devise an experimental strategy relevant to the realistic full-field heat transfer measurement of a rotating channel. Along with the method of parametric analysis that is unique to the present experimental method, the generation of heat transfer correlation for assessing the isolated and interdependent Ro and Bu effects on Nu is permitted.
The article illustrates an experimental method aimed at generating the two-dimensional heat transfer data of a rotating channel with flow conditions similar to the realistic gas turbine engine conditions but operating at much lower rotating speeds in the laboratories. The method developed to select the rotating speed, the hydraulic diameter of test channel and the range of wall-to-fluid temperature differences for acquiring the heat transfer data at realistic engine conditions is illustrated in the introduction. The calibration tests for the infrared thermography system, the heat loss calibration tests and the operation of the rotating heat transfer test rig are shown. The factors causing the significant uncertainties for heat transfer measurements and the procedures for decoupling the Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of a rotating channel are described in the article with the selective results to demonstrate the present experimental method.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotating test rig</td>
			<td>In-house made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Design by this research group</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat transfer test module</td>
			<td>In-house made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Design by this research group</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass flow meter</td>
			<td>Eldride Product, Inc.</td>
			<td>3100301-01-01 
			359-1007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Infrared thermography system</td>
			<td>NEC P384A-8</td>
			<td>3100401-04 
			3127A-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Instrumentation slip ring</td>
			<td>Michigan Scientific SR36M</td>
			<td>3100506-62 
			3553-372</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

uncoupling coriolis force and rotating buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer properties of a rotating channel

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that characterize the transport phenomena in a rotating channel are identified via the parametric analysis of the momentum and energy equations referring to a rotating frame of reference. Based on these dimensionless flow equations, an experimental strategy that links the design of the test module, the experimental program and the data analysis is formulated with the attempt to reveal the isolated Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on heat transfer performances. The effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy are illustrated using the selective results measured from rotating channels with various geometries. While the Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy impacts share several common features among the various rotating channels, the unique heat transfer signatures are found in association with the flow direction, the channel shape and the arrangement of heat transfer enhancement devices. Regardless of the flow configurations of the rotating channels, the presented experimental method enables the development of physically consistent heat transfer correlations that permit the evaluation of isolated and interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of rotating channels.

Realistic operating conditions for the internal coolant flows inside a rotating gas turbine blade in terms of Re, Ro and Bu are compared with the emulated laboratory conditions in Figure 1. The data points fall in the realistic engine conditions using the present experimental method summarized in the protocols11,14,17,20,<sup c...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel at JoVE.com

Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel

Here, we present an experimental method for decoupling the interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer distributions of a rotating channel.

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that ...

This method can help answer key questions in the heat transfer field including many rated to internal cooling of cast turbine rotor blades. The main advantage of this technique is the full field heat transfer data collected and the proposed data reduction method. Those are able to reveal individual and interdependent effects of the Coriolis folds and rotating buoyancy on local heat transfer properties.Demonstrating the procedure will be Kuo-Ching Yu, Wei-Ling Cai and Hong-Da Shen. Three graduate students from my laboratory. The protocol requires the use of a rotating rig that consists of a shaft driven by a motor.The shaft drives a rotating platform that supports a test module. It also has a counterweight for rotational balancing. An infrared camera is in position to scan the test module.Features of the test module used for data collection are depicted in this exploded view schematic. When constructed, the Teflon frame, sidewalls, dividers and top and back plates help define a square two past channel with S-shaped inlet and outlet legs. The module's base attaches to the rotating platform.During experiments, stainless steel foil end walls carry current to generate heating flux. Copper plates help hold the foil in place. An air Plenum chamber supplies pressurized air flow through the base slightly off the centerline of the inlet leg.Finally, exhaust from the outlet leg also goes through the base. Once assembled and in position, the exposed foil end wall is the leading end wall in the rotation. At the mounted test module, prepare to measure the thermal emissivity.There hang heating foil between infrared camera and the test module. Make the electrical connections for heating. Access the side of the foil closest to the test module.On that side at the center of the foil install a calibrated thermocouple. Next turn attention to the camera facing side of the foil. Prepare this side opposite the thermocouple by spraying a thin layer of black paint onto it.Now employing enclosure to isolate the camera in heating foil during data collection. Feed electrical power to the heating foil to create a symmetrical flow field. Once the system is at steady-state, measure the temperature by thermocouple and infrared thermography.Repeat the measurement with different heater powers. After completing the measurements, remove the thermocouple from the foil. Have the rig ready for making heat transfer tests.This includes equipment for pressurizing the test channel. Be prepared to adjust the counterbalancing weight to establish balance of the rig. First verify or establish static balancing of the rotating rig.Once achieved, the rotor will remain in any angular position that it is set to. For dynamic balancing, start the rig rotating at the desired constant rate. Begin infrared imaging and view the captured images.When the rig is not in dynamic balance, the thermographic image from the measurements is not stable. To achieve dynamic balance, gradually adjust the counterweight. When dynamic balance is achieved, there will be a stable thermal image under the running conditions.Remove the test module from the rotating rig and take it to a bench. Next access the modules coolant channel. Have thermal insulation material available, in this case insulating fiber.Fill the coolant channel to the test module with the thermal insulation. Here, the channel is filled sufficiently for the next steps in the protocol. Reassemble the test module and prepare it for remounting on the rig.Reconnect all power in instrument cables. Return the test module to the rotating rig, apply heating power and set the conditions for the measurement. Monitor the wall temperature over time, usually more than three hours.The temperatures at the two time points of interest are plotted below the thermal image. When the temperature variation is less than 0.3 Kelvin, record the wall in ambient temperatures and the heater power. Make multiple measurements while systematically varying the heating, rotation speed and direction.When done take the module back to a bench to remove the insulating material before mounting it on the rig again. Next, perform the heat transfer test with the test module. Start the spreadsheet developed for the experiment.In the appropriate cells, define the geometric parameters associated with the test module. At the set up, start coolant flow into the test channel. In the spreadsheet, enter the measured values for ambient and fluid temperatures, coolant mass flow rate, atmospheric pressure and the measured coolant static pressure.The software calculates the Reynolds number and displays it. If it is not the desired Reynolds number, change the coolant mass flow rate. Then reenter the measured parameters to find the new Reynolds number.With the Reynolds number established, activate the thermography system. Next, supply and regulate the heating power to set the wall temperature. Check that the temperature has reached a steady-state at the predefined value by verifying the temporal wall temperature profile is flat.In the spreadsheet, enter the averaged wall temperature over the scanned area. Also input the heating voltage and the heating current. For baseline tests, once the conditions are set save the data for post processing.For the rotating heat transfer test continue by activating the motor to begin rotation. Enter the rotation speed of the shaft into the spreadsheet. The software will determine the rotation number for the current conditions.Adjust the rotation speed in order to obtain the targeted rotation number. In order to achieve the desired Reynolds and notation numbers in a steady state condition, it may be necessary to fine-tune the coolant flow rate. Rotation speed and heat up power several times.Save all the rotating heat transfer data for post processing. Continue to systematically collect data for different values of the experimental parameters. In these images of the S channel test module with coolant streams at different Reynolds numbers there is spatial variation of Nusselt numbers due to centrifugal forces induced by vortices.These plots reflect the area averaged heat transfer properties over the leading and trailing end walls of the S channel module. The rotation to static Nusselt number ratio as a function of buoyancy number goes from below to above one for the leading-edge wall. For the trailing edge wall, the ratio is never below one.Note, for fixed rotation number and different Reynolds numbers, the normalized Nusselt numbers vary over a small range. Different channel types have different behavior. For a given rotation number, extrapolation to zero buoyancy gives the heat transfer level due to Coriolis forces with vanishing buoyancy for the leading wall.Similar analysis works for the trailing wall. Here is the variation of the rotation to static Nusselt number ratio at vanishing buoyancy as a function of rotation number for different channel geometries. The data revealed the uncoupled Coriolis force effects on the area averaged heat transfer properties of the leading and trailing edge end walls.These data demonstrate the impact of buoyancy number on the heat transfer properties of a rotating channel is rotation number dependent. So this method can provide insight into cooling performance of rotating channel inside a cast turbine rotor blade. It can also be applied to other systems such as amature cooling of rich core motor.Generally, individuals new to this method or cycle because the heat transfer measurement from a rotating surface is difficult. Once mastered, this technique can be done in 100 hours if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to constantly check for coolant flow leakage.After its development, this technique pave the way for researchers in the field of cast turbine engine to explore the full field Nusselt number distributions in rotor blades. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to uncoupled effects of Coriolis folds and rotating buoyancy on full field agents for properties of the rotating channels and applications to cast turbine rotor blades.

uncoupling-coriolis-force-rotating-buoyancy-effects-on-full-field

Research

Education

JoVE Journal

JoVE Core

Engineering

Physics

Mechanical Engineering

Unit 1

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

Dynamics of Rotational Motions

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

8.0K vistas.  National Cheng Kung University. Este método puede ayudar a responder preguntas clave en el campo de transferencia de calor, incluyendo muchos clasificados a enfriamiento interno de las palas del rotor de turbina fundida. La principal ventaja de esta técnica son los datos de transferencia de calor de campo completo recogidos y el método de reducción de datos propuesto. Estos son capaces de revelar efectos individuales e interdependientes de los pliegues de Coriolis y flotabilidad rotativa en las propiedades locales de tr...