Name: uncoupling coriolis force and rotating buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer properties of a rotating channel
Uploaded: 2018-10-05T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel at JoVE.com

The present research work was financially sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan under the grant NSC 94-2611-E-022-001, NSC 95-2221-E-022-018, NSC 96-2221-E-022-015MY3 and NSC 97-2221-E-022-013-MY3.

NOTE: The details of rotating test facilities, data acquisition, data processing and the heat transfer test module emulating an internal cooling channel of a gas turbine rotor blade are in our previous works29,30,31,32.
1. Preparation of Heat Transfer Tests
<ol>
	<li>Formulate the experimental conditions in terms of Re, Ro and Bu from the...

<ol>
	<li>Morris, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Heat transfer and fluid flow in rotating coolant channels. , ISBN 0471101214 (1981).</li><li>Morris, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rotating+facility+to+study+heat+transfer+in+the+cooling+passage+of+turbine+rotor+blades.">A rotating facility to study heat transfer in the cooling passage of turbine rotor blades.</a> Journal of Power and Energy. 210 (1), 55-63 (1996).</li><li>Wagner, J. H., Johnson, B. V., Graziani, R. A., Yeh, F. 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GT2016-56413, Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition: Heat Transfer. 5 (B), V05BT16A006 1~10 (2016).</li><li>Morris, W. D., Chang, S. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+experimental+study+of+heat+transfer+in+a+simulated+turbine+blade+cooling+passage.">An experimental study of heat transfer in a simulated turbine blade cooling passage.</a> International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer. 40 (15), 3703-3716 (1997).</li><li>Chang, S. W., Liou, T. -. 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While the endwall temperatures of a rotating channel are detected by an infrared thermography system, the fluid temperatures are measured by thermocouples. As the alternative magnetic field of an AC motor that drives a rotating rig induces electrical potential to interfere the thermocouple measurements, the DC motor must be adopted to drive a rotating test rig.
The fluid temperature distribution over the exit plane of a heated channel is not uniform. At least five thermocouples on the existing...

While thermodynamic laws dictate the improved specific power and thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine by elevating the turbine entry temperature, several hot engine components, such as turbine blades, are prone to thermal damage. Internal cooling of a gas turbine rotor blade permits a turbine entry temperature in excess of the temperature limits of the creep resistance of the blade material. However, the configurations of the internal cooling channels must comply with the blade profile. In particular, the coolant rotates within the rotor blade. With such harsh thermal conditions for a running gas turbine rotor blade, an effective blade cooling scheme is crucial to ensure the structure&#39;s integrity. Thus, the local heat transfer properties for a rotating channel are important for the efficient usage of the limited coolant flow available. The acquisition of useful heat transfer data that are applicable to the design of the internal coolant passages at realistic engine conditions is of primary importance when an experimental method is developed for measuring the heat transfer properties of a simulated cooling passage inside a gas turbine rotor blade.
Rotation at a speed above 10,000 rpm considerably alters the cooling performance of a rotating channel inside a gas turbine rotor blade. The identification of engine conditions for such a rotating channel is permissible using the similarity law. With rotation, the dimensionless groups that control the transport phenomena inside a radially rotating channel can be revealed by deriving the flow equations relative to a rotating frame of reference. Morris1 has derived the momentum conservation equation of flow relative to a rotating frame of reference as:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq1.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(1)
In equation (1), the local fluid velocity, v&#772;, with the position vector, r&#772;, relative to a frame of reference rotating at the angular velocity, &#969;, is affected by the Coriolis acceleration in terms of 2(&#969;&#215;v&#772;), the decoupled centripetal buoyancy force, &#946;(T-Tref)(&#969;&#215;&#969;&#215;r&#772;), the driven piezo-metric pressure gradient, <img alt="Equation 16" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq16.jpg" />, and the fluid dynamic viscosity, &#957;. The referenced fluid density, &#961;ref, is referred to a pre-defined fluid reference temperature Tref, which is typical of the local fluid bulk temperature for experiments. If the irreversible conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy is negligible, the energy conservation equation is reduced to:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq2.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(2)
The first term of equation (2) is obtained by treating the specific enthalpy to be directly related to the local fluid temperature, T, via the constant specific heat, Cp. As the perturbation of fluid density caused by the variation of fluid temperature in a heated rotating channel provides considerable influence on the motion of fluids when it links with the centripetal acceleration in equation (1), the fluid velocity and temperature fields in an axially rotating channel are coupled. Also, both Coriolis and centripetal accelerations vary simultaneously as the rotating speed is adjusted. Thus, the effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy on the fields of fluid velocity and temperature are naturally coupled.
Equations (1) and (2) in the dimensionless forms disclose the flow parameters that govern the heat convection in a rotating channel. With a basically uniform heat flux imposed on a rotating channel, the local fluid bulk temperature, Tb, increases linearly in the streamwise direction, s, from the reference inlet level, Tref. The local fluid bulk temperature is determined as Tref + &#964;s, where &#964; is the gradient of the fluid bulk temperature in the direction of flow. Substitutions of the following dimensionless parameters of:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq3.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(3)
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq4.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(4)
<img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq5.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(5)
<img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq6.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(6)
<img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq7.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(7)
into equations (1) and (2), where Vmean, N and d respectively stand for the mean flow through velocity, rotating velocity and channel hydraulic diameter, the dimensionless flow momentum and energy equations are derived as equations (8) and (9) respectively.
<img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq8.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(8)
<img alt="Equation 9" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq9.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(9)
Evidently, &#951; in equation (9) is a function of Re, Ro, and Bu = Ro2&#946;&#964;dR, which are respectively referred to as Reynolds, rotation and buoyancy numbers. The Rossby number that quantifies the ratio between inertial and Coriolis forces is equivalent to the inverse rotation number in equation (8).
When Tb is calculated as Tref + &#964;s in a rotating channel subject to a uniform heat flux, the &#964; value can be alternatively evaluated as Qf/(mCpL) in which Qf, m and L are the convective heating power, coolant mass flow rate and channel length, respectively. Thus, the dimensionless local fluid bulk temperature, &#951;b, is equal to s/d and the dimensionless temperature at channel wall, &#951;w, yields [(Tw-Tb)/Qf][mCp][L/d]+s/d. With the convective heat transfer rate defined as Qf/(Tw-Tb), the dimensionless wall-to-fluid temperature difference, &#951;w-&#951;b, is convertible into the local Nusselt number via equation (10) in which &#950; is the dimensionless shape function of heating area and channel sectional area.
<img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq10.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(10)
With a set of predefined geometries and the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary conditions, the dimensionless groups controlling the local Nusselt number of a rotating channel are identified as:
<img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq11.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(11)
<img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq12.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(12)
<img alt="Equation 13" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq13.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(13)
With experimental tests, the adjustment of rotating speed, N, for varying Ro to generate the heat transfer data at different strengths of Coriolis forces inevitably changes the centripetal acceleration, and thus, the relative strength of rotating buoyancy. Moreover, a set of heat transfer data collected from a rotating channel is always subject to a finite degree of rotating buoyancy effect. To disclose the individual effects of Coriolis-force and buoyancy on the heat transfer performance of a rotating channel requires the uncoupling of the Ro and Bu effects on Nu properties through the post data processing procedure that is inclusive in the present experimental method.
The engine and laboratory flow conditions for a rotating channel inside a gas turbine rotor blade can be specified by the ranges of Re, Ro and Bu. The typical engine conditions for the coolant flow through a gas turbine rotor blade, as well as the construction and commissioning of the rotating test facility that allowed experiments to be performed near the actual engine conditions was reported by Morris2. Based on the realistic engine conditions summarized by Morris2, Figure 1 constructs the realistic operating conditions in terms of Re, Ro and Bu ranges for a rotating coolant channel in a gas turbine rotor blade. In Figure 1, the indication of an engine&#39;s worst condition is referred to as the engine running condition at the highest rotor speed and the highest density ratio. In Figure 1, the lower limit and worst engine operating conditions respectively emerge at the lowest and highest engine speeds. It is extremely difficult to measure the full-field Nu distribution of a rotating channel running at a real engine speed between 5000 and 20,000 rpm. However, based on the similarity law, laboratory-scale tests have been conducted at reduced rotating speeds but with several attempts to provide a full coverage of the real-engine Re, Ro and Bu ranges. As an innovative experimental method, the NASA HOST program3,4,5,6 adopted the high-pressure tests for increasing the fluid densities at the predefined Re in order to extend the Ro range by reducing the mean fluid velocity. In this regard, the specific relationships between Re, Ro and Bu for an ideal gas with a gas constant, Rc, and viscosity, &#956;, are related as:
<img alt="Equation 14" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq14.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(14)
<img alt="Equation 15" src="/files/ftp_upload/57630/57630eq15.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;(15)
To bring the laboratory conditions into the nominal correspondence with engine conditions seen in Figure 1, the rotating speed, N, coolant pressure, P, channel hydraulic diameter, d, rotating radius, R, and wall-to-fluid temperature difference, Tw-Tb, need to be controlled for matching the realistic Re, Ro and Bu ranges. Clearly, one of the most effective approaches to extend the Ro range is to increase channel hydraulic diameter, as Ro is proportional to d2. As the laboratory heat transfer test at realistic N is extremely difficult, the coolant pressure, P, is technically easier to be raised for extending Ro range; even if Ro is only proportional to P. Based on this theoretical background, the design philosophy of the present experimental method is to increase Ro by pressurizing the rotating test channel using the maximum channel hydraulic diameter allowed to fit into the rotating rig. Having increased the Ro range, the range of Bu is accordingly extended as Bu is proportional to Ro2. In Figure 1, the laboratory test conditions adopted to generate the heat transfer data of rotating channels are also included3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29. As indicated in Figure 1, the coverage of realistic engine conditions by the available heat transfer data is still limited, especially for the required Bu range. The open and the colored solid symbols depicted in Figure 1 are the pointed and full-field heat transfer experiments, respectively. As collected in Figure 1, most of the heat transfer data with cooling applications to gas turbine rotor blades1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,20,21,22,23,24,25,26 are point measurements using the thermocouple method. The wall conduction effects on measuring the wall conductive heat flux and the temperatures at fluid-wall interfaces undermine the quality of heat transfer data converted from the thermocouple measurements. Also, the heat transfer measurements1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,20,21,22,23,24,25,26 using the thermocouple method cannot detect the two-dimensional heat transfer variations over a rotating surface. With the present experimental method29,30,31,32, the detection of full-field Nusselt number distributions over the rotating channel wall is permissible. The minimization of wall conduction effect using 0.1 mm thick stainless-steel foils with Biot numbers &#62;&#62;1 to generate the heating power by the present experimental method permits the one-dimensional heat conduction from the heating foil to the coolant flow. In particular, the acquisition of full-field heat transfer data involving both Ro and Bu effects is not permissible using the transient liquid crystal technique and the thermocouple method. With the current steady-state liquid crystal thermography method19, the detectable temperature range of 35-55 &#176;C disables the generation of heat transfer data with realistic density ratios.
Using the flow parameters governing the heat convection in a rotating channel to demonstrate that the full coverage of realistic engine conditions seen in Figure 1 has not yet been achieved, so the need for acquiring the full-field heat transfer data at realistic engine conditions has been continuously urged. The present experimental method enables the generation of full-field heat transfer with both Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects detected. The protocols are aimed at assisting the investigators to devise an experimental strategy relevant to the realistic full-field heat transfer measurement of a rotating channel. Along with the method of parametric analysis that is unique to the present experimental method, the generation of heat transfer correlation for assessing the isolated and interdependent Ro and Bu effects on Nu is permitted.
The article illustrates an experimental method aimed at generating the two-dimensional heat transfer data of a rotating channel with flow conditions similar to the realistic gas turbine engine conditions but operating at much lower rotating speeds in the laboratories. The method developed to select the rotating speed, the hydraulic diameter of test channel and the range of wall-to-fluid temperature differences for acquiring the heat transfer data at realistic engine conditions is illustrated in the introduction. The calibration tests for the infrared thermography system, the heat loss calibration tests and the operation of the rotating heat transfer test rig are shown. The factors causing the significant uncertainties for heat transfer measurements and the procedures for decoupling the Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of a rotating channel are described in the article with the selective results to demonstrate the present experimental method.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotating test rig</td>
			<td>In-house made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Design by this research group</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat transfer test module</td>
			<td>In-house made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Design by this research group</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass flow meter</td>
			<td>Eldride Product, Inc.</td>
			<td>3100301-01-01 
			359-1007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Infrared thermography system</td>
			<td>NEC P384A-8</td>
			<td>3100401-04 
			3127A-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Instrumentation slip ring</td>
			<td>Michigan Scientific SR36M</td>
			<td>3100506-62 
			3553-372</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

uncoupling coriolis force and rotating buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer properties of a rotating channel

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that characterize the transport phenomena in a rotating channel are identified via the parametric analysis of the momentum and energy equations referring to a rotating frame of reference. Based on these dimensionless flow equations, an experimental strategy that links the design of the test module, the experimental program and the data analysis is formulated with the attempt to reveal the isolated Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on heat transfer performances. The effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy are illustrated using the selective results measured from rotating channels with various geometries. While the Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy impacts share several common features among the various rotating channels, the unique heat transfer signatures are found in association with the flow direction, the channel shape and the arrangement of heat transfer enhancement devices. Regardless of the flow configurations of the rotating channels, the presented experimental method enables the development of physically consistent heat transfer correlations that permit the evaluation of isolated and interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of rotating channels.

Realistic operating conditions for the internal coolant flows inside a rotating gas turbine blade in terms of Re, Ro and Bu are compared with the emulated laboratory conditions in Figure 1. The data points fall in the realistic engine conditions using the present experimental method summarized in the protocols11,14,17,20,<sup c...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel at JoVE.com

Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel

Here, we present an experimental method for decoupling the interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer distributions of a rotating channel.

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that ...

This method can help answer key questions in the heat transfer field including many rated to internal cooling of cast turbine rotor blades. The main advantage of this technique is the full field heat transfer data collected and the proposed data reduction method. Those are able to reveal individual and interdependent effects of the Coriolis folds and rotating buoyancy on local heat transfer properties.Demonstrating the procedure will be Kuo-Ching Yu, Wei-Ling Cai and Hong-Da Shen. Three graduate students from my laboratory. The protocol requires the use of a rotating rig that consists of a shaft driven by a motor.The shaft drives a rotating platform that supports a test module. It also has a counterweight for rotational balancing. An infrared camera is in position to scan the test module.Features of the test module used for data collection are depicted in this exploded view schematic. When constructed, the Teflon frame, sidewalls, dividers and top and back plates help define a square two past channel with S-shaped inlet and outlet legs. The module's base attaches to the rotating platform.During experiments, stainless steel foil end walls carry current to generate heating flux. Copper plates help hold the foil in place. An air Plenum chamber supplies pressurized air flow through the base slightly off the centerline of the inlet leg.Finally, exhaust from the outlet leg also goes through the base. Once assembled and in position, the exposed foil end wall is the leading end wall in the rotation. At the mounted test module, prepare to measure the thermal emissivity.There hang heating foil between infrared camera and the test module. Make the electrical connections for heating. Access the side of the foil closest to the test module.On that side at the center of the foil install a calibrated thermocouple. Next turn attention to the camera facing side of the foil. Prepare this side opposite the thermocouple by spraying a thin layer of black paint onto it.Now employing enclosure to isolate the camera in heating foil during data collection. Feed electrical power to the heating foil to create a symmetrical flow field. Once the system is at steady-state, measure the temperature by thermocouple and infrared thermography.Repeat the measurement with different heater powers. After completing the measurements, remove the thermocouple from the foil. Have the rig ready for making heat transfer tests.This includes equipment for pressurizing the test channel. Be prepared to adjust the counterbalancing weight to establish balance of the rig. First verify or establish static balancing of the rotating rig.Once achieved, the rotor will remain in any angular position that it is set to. For dynamic balancing, start the rig rotating at the desired constant rate. Begin infrared imaging and view the captured images.When the rig is not in dynamic balance, the thermographic image from the measurements is not stable. To achieve dynamic balance, gradually adjust the counterweight. When dynamic balance is achieved, there will be a stable thermal image under the running conditions.Remove the test module from the rotating rig and take it to a bench. Next access the modules coolant channel. Have thermal insulation material available, in this case insulating fiber.Fill the coolant channel to the test module with the thermal insulation. Here, the channel is filled sufficiently for the next steps in the protocol. Reassemble the test module and prepare it for remounting on the rig.Reconnect all power in instrument cables. Return the test module to the rotating rig, apply heating power and set the conditions for the measurement. Monitor the wall temperature over time, usually more than three hours.The temperatures at the two time points of interest are plotted below the thermal image. When the temperature variation is less than 0.3 Kelvin, record the wall in ambient temperatures and the heater power. Make multiple measurements while systematically varying the heating, rotation speed and direction.When done take the module back to a bench to remove the insulating material before mounting it on the rig again. Next, perform the heat transfer test with the test module. Start the spreadsheet developed for the experiment.In the appropriate cells, define the geometric parameters associated with the test module. At the set up, start coolant flow into the test channel. In the spreadsheet, enter the measured values for ambient and fluid temperatures, coolant mass flow rate, atmospheric pressure and the measured coolant static pressure.The software calculates the Reynolds number and displays it. If it is not the desired Reynolds number, change the coolant mass flow rate. Then reenter the measured parameters to find the new Reynolds number.With the Reynolds number established, activate the thermography system. Next, supply and regulate the heating power to set the wall temperature. Check that the temperature has reached a steady-state at the predefined value by verifying the temporal wall temperature profile is flat.In the spreadsheet, enter the averaged wall temperature over the scanned area. Also input the heating voltage and the heating current. For baseline tests, once the conditions are set save the data for post processing.For the rotating heat transfer test continue by activating the motor to begin rotation. Enter the rotation speed of the shaft into the spreadsheet. The software will determine the rotation number for the current conditions.Adjust the rotation speed in order to obtain the targeted rotation number. In order to achieve the desired Reynolds and notation numbers in a steady state condition, it may be necessary to fine-tune the coolant flow rate. Rotation speed and heat up power several times.Save all the rotating heat transfer data for post processing. Continue to systematically collect data for different values of the experimental parameters. In these images of the S channel test module with coolant streams at different Reynolds numbers there is spatial variation of Nusselt numbers due to centrifugal forces induced by vortices.These plots reflect the area averaged heat transfer properties over the leading and trailing end walls of the S channel module. The rotation to static Nusselt number ratio as a function of buoyancy number goes from below to above one for the leading-edge wall. For the trailing edge wall, the ratio is never below one.Note, for fixed rotation number and different Reynolds numbers, the normalized Nusselt numbers vary over a small range. Different channel types have different behavior. For a given rotation number, extrapolation to zero buoyancy gives the heat transfer level due to Coriolis forces with vanishing buoyancy for the leading wall.Similar analysis works for the trailing wall. Here is the variation of the rotation to static Nusselt number ratio at vanishing buoyancy as a function of rotation number for different channel geometries. The data revealed the uncoupled Coriolis force effects on the area averaged heat transfer properties of the leading and trailing edge end walls.These data demonstrate the impact of buoyancy number on the heat transfer properties of a rotating channel is rotation number dependent. So this method can provide insight into cooling performance of rotating channel inside a cast turbine rotor blade. It can also be applied to other systems such as amature cooling of rich core motor.Generally, individuals new to this method or cycle because the heat transfer measurement from a rotating surface is difficult. Once mastered, this technique can be done in 100 hours if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to constantly check for coolant flow leakage.After its development, this technique pave the way for researchers in the field of cast turbine engine to explore the full field Nusselt number distributions in rotor blades. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to uncoupled effects of Coriolis folds and rotating buoyancy on full field agents for properties of the rotating channels and applications to cast turbine rotor blades.

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Proton Transfer and Protein Conformation Dynamics in Photosensitive Proteins by Time-resolved Step-scan Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards understanding its mechanism. Protonation and conformational changes affect the vibration pattern of amino acid side chains and of the peptide bond, respectively, both of which can be probed by infrared (IR) difference spectroscopy. For proteins whose function can be repetitively and reproducibly triggered by light, it is possible to obtain infrared difference spectra with (sub)microsecond resolution over a broad spectral range using the step-scan Fourier transform infrared technique. With ~102-103 repetitions of the photoreaction, the minimum number to complete a scan at reasonable spectral resolution and bandwidth, the noise level in the absorption difference spectra can be as low as ~10-4, sufficient to follow the kinetics of protonation changes from a single amino acid. Lower noise levels can be accomplished by more data averaging and/or mathematical processing. The amount of protein required for optimal results is between 5-100 &#181;g, depending on the sampling technique used. Regarding additional requirements, the protein needs to be first concentrated in a low ionic strength buffer and then dried to form a film. The protein film is hydrated prior to the experiment, either with little droplets of water or under controlled atmospheric humidity. The attained hydration level (g of water / g of protein) is gauged from an IR absorption spectrum. To showcase the technique, we studied the photocycle of the light-driven proton-pump bacteriorhodopsin in its native purple membrane environment, and of the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 solubilized in detergent.

Key steps of protein function, in particular backbone conformational changes and proton transfer reactions, often take place in the microsecond to millisecond time scale. These dynamical processes can be studied by time-resolved step-scan Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, in particular for proteins whose function is triggered by light.

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards ...

Atomic Force Microscopy of Red-Light Photoreceptors Using PeakForce Quantitative Nanomechanical Property Mapping

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) uses a pyramidal tip attached to a cantilever to probe the force response of a surface. The deflections of the tip can be measured to ~10 pN by a laser and sectored detector, which can be converted to image topography. Amplitude modulation or &#8220;tapping mode&#8221; AFM involves the probe making intermittent contact with the surface while oscillating at its resonant frequency to produce an image. Used in conjunction with a fluid cell, tapping-mode AFM enables the imaging of biological macromolecules such as proteins in physiologically relevant conditions. Tapping-mode AFM requires manual tuning of the probe and frequent adjustments of a multitude of scanning parameters which can be challenging for inexperienced users. To obtain high-quality images, these adjustments are the most time consuming.
PeakForce Quantitative Nanomechanical Property Mapping (PF-QNM) produces an image by measuring a force response curve for every point of contact with the sample. With ScanAsyst software, PF-QNM can be automated. This software adjusts the set-point, drive frequency, scan rate, gains, and other important scanning parameters automatically for a given sample. Not only does this process protect both fragile probes and samples, it significantly reduces the time required to obtain high resolution images. PF-QNM is compatible for AFM imaging in fluid; therefore, it has extensive application for imaging biologically relevant materials.
The method presented in this paper describes the application of PF-QNM to obtain images of a bacterial red-light photoreceptor, RpBphP3 (P3), from photosynthetic R. palustris in its light-adapted state. Using this method, individual protein dimers of P3 and aggregates of dimers have been observed on a mica surface in the presence of an imaging buffer. With appropriate adjustments to surface and/or solution concentration, this method may be generally applied to other biologically relevant macromolecules and soft materials.

A method for investigating the structure of a protein photoreceptor using atomic force microscopy (AFM) is described in this paper. PeakForce Quantitative Nanomechanical Property Mapping (PF-QNM) reveals intact protein dimers on a mica surface.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) uses a pyramidal tip attached to a cantilever to probe the force response of a surface. The deflections of the tip can be ...

Laser-induced Forward Transfer of Ag Nanopaste

Over the past decade, there has been much development of non-lithographic methods1-3 for printing metallic inks or other functional materials. Many of these processes such as inkjet3 and laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT)4 have become increasingly popular as interest in printable electronics and maskless patterning has grown. These additive manufacturing processes are inexpensive, environmentally friendly, and well suited for rapid prototyping, when compared to more traditional semiconductor processing techniques. While most direct-write processes are confined to two-dimensional structures and cannot handle materials with high viscosity (particularly inkjet), LIFT can transcend both constraints if performed properly. Congruent transfer of three dimensional pixels (called voxels), also referred to as laser decal transfer (LDT)5-9, has recently been demonstrated with the LIFT technique using highly viscous Ag nanopastes to fabricate freestanding interconnects, complex voxel shapes, and high-aspect-ratio structures. In this paper, we demonstrate a simple yet versatile process for fabricating a variety of micro- and macroscale Ag structures. Structures include simple shapes for patterning electrical contacts, bridging and cantilever structures, high-aspect-ratio structures, and single-shot, large area transfers using a commercial digital micromirror device (DMD) chip.

We demonstrate the use of the Laser-induced forward transfer technique (LIFT) for the printing of high-viscosity Ag paste. This technique offers a simple, low temperature, robust process for non-lithographically printing microscale 2D and 3D structures.

Over the past decade, there has been much development of non-lithographic methods1-3 for printing metallic inks or other functional materials. Many of ...

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed that, under the proper conditions, ice can be produced when water is introduced to a bath of cold brine. To make ice form, in addition to having the brine and water mix, the rate of heat transfer must bypass that of mass transfer. When water is introduced in the form of tiny droplets to the brine surface, the mode of heat and mass transfer is by diffusion. The buoyancy stops water from mixing with the brine underneath, but as the ice grows thicker, it slows down the rate of heat transfer, making ice more difficult to grow as a result. When water is introduced inside the brine in the form of a flow, a number of factors are found to influence how much ice can form. Brine temperature and concentration, which are the driving forces of heat and mass transfer, respectively, can affect the water-to-ice conversion ratio; lower bath temperatures and brine concentrations encourage more ice to form. The flow rheology, which can directly affect both the heat and mass transfer coefficients, is also a key factor. In addition, the flow rheology changes the area of contact of the flow with the bulk fluid.

Here, we present a protocol to demonstrate the generation of ice when water is introduced to a cold bath of brine, as a secondary refrigerant, at a range of temperatures well below the freezing point of water. It can be used as an alternative way of producing ice for industry.

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

Magnetically Induced Rotating Rayleigh-Taylor Instability

Classical techniques for investigating the Rayleigh-Taylor instability include using compressed gasses1, rocketry2 or linear electric motors3 to reverse the effective direction of gravity, and accelerate the lighter fluid toward the denser fluid. Other authorse.g. 4,5,6 have separated a gravitationally unstable stratification with a barrier that is removed to initiate the flow. However, the parabolic initial interface in the case of a rotating stratification imposes significant technical difficulties experimentally. We wish to be able to spin-up the stratification into solid-body rotation and only then initiate the flow in order to investigate the effects of rotation upon the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. The approach we have adopted here is to use the magnetic field of a superconducting magnet to manipulate the effective weight of the two liquids to initiate the flow. We create a gravitationally stable two-layer stratification using standard flotation techniques. The upper layer is less dense than the lower layer and so the system is Rayleigh-Taylor stable. This stratification is then spun-up until both layers are in solid-body rotation and a parabolic interface is observed. These experiments use fluids with low magnetic susceptibility, |&#967;| ~ 10-6 - 10-5, compared to a ferrofluids. The dominant effect of the magnetic field applies a body-force to each layer changing the effective weight. The upper layer is weakly paramagnetic while the lower layer is weakly diamagnetic. When the magnetic field is applied, the lower layer is repelled from the magnet while the upper layer is attracted towards the magnet. A Rayleigh-Taylor instability is achieved with application of a high gradient magnetic field. We further observed that increasing the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in each layer, increases the length-scale of the instability.

We present a protocol for preparing a two-layer density-stratified liquid that can be spun-up into solid body rotation and subsequently induced into Rayleigh-Taylor instability by applying a gradient magnetic field.

Classical techniques for investigating the Rayleigh-Taylor instability include using compressed gasses1, rocketry2 or linear electric motors3 to reverse ...

Measurement of Quantum Interference in a Silicon Ring Resonator Photon Source

Silicon photonic chips have the potential to realize complex integrated quantum information processing circuits, including photon sources, qubit manipulation, and integrated single-photon detectors. Here, we present the key aspects of preparing and testing a silicon photonic quantum chip with an integrated photon source and two-photon interferometer. The most important aspect of an integrated quantum circuit is minimizing loss so that all of the generated photons are detected with the highest possible fidelity. Here, we describe how to perform low-loss edge coupling by using an ultra-high numerical aperture fiber to closely match the mode of the silicon waveguides. By using an optimized fusion splicing recipe, the UHNA fiber is seamlessly interfaced with a standard single-mode fiber. This low-loss coupling allows the measurement of high-fidelity photon production in an integrated silicon ring resonator and the subsequent two-photon interference of the produced photons in a closely integrated Mach-Zehnder interferometer. This paper describes the essential procedures for the preparation and characterization of high-performance and scalable silicon quantum photonic circuits.

Silicon photonic chips have the potential to realize complex integrated quantum systems. Presented here is a method for preparing and testing a silicon photonic chip for quantum measurements.

Silicon photonic chips have the potential to realize complex integrated quantum information processing circuits, including photon sources, qubit ...

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

The quasi 2D electron system (q2DES) that forms at the interface between LaAlO3 (LAO) and SrTiO3 (STO) has attracted much attention from the oxide electronics community. One of its hallmark features is the existence of a critical LAO thickness of 4 unit-cells (uc) for interfacial conductivity to emerge. Although electrostatic mechanisms have been proposed in the past to describe the existence of this critical thickness, the importance of chemical defects has been recently accentuated. Here, we describe the growth of metal/LAO/STO heterostructures in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) cluster system combining pulsed laser deposition (to grow the LAO), magnetron sputtering (to grow the metal) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). We study step by step the formation and evolution of the q2DES and the chemical interactions that occur between the metal and the LAO/STO. Additionally, magnetotransport experiments elucidate on the transport and electronic properties of the q2DES. This systematic work not only demonstrates a way to study the electrostatic and chemical interplay between the q2DES and its environment, but also unlocks the possibility to couple multifunctional capping layers with the rich physics observed in two-dimensional electron systems, allowing the fabrication of new types of devices.

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

We fabricate metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures using a combination of pulsed laser deposition and in situ magnetron sputtering. Through magnetotransport and in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy experiments, we investigate the interplay between electrostatic and chemical phenomena of the quasi two-dimensional electron gas formed in this system.

The quasi 2D electron system (q2DES) that forms at the interface between LaAlO3 (LAO) and SrTiO3 (STO) has attracted much attention from the oxide ...

Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer coefficient as a function of the liquid flow rate in a transparent pipe. With certain amendments, the approach is extended to gas-liquid flows, with a particular emphasis on the effect of a single elongated (Taylor) air bubble on heat transfer enhancement. A non-invasive thermography technique is applied to measure the instantaneous temperature of a thin metal foil heated electrically. The foil is glued to cover a narrow slot cut in the pipe. The thermal inertia of the foil is small enough to detect the variation in the instantaneous foil temperature. The test section can be moved along the pipe and is long enough to cover a considerable part of the growing thermal boundary layer.
At the beginning of each experimental run, a steady state with a constant water flow rate and heat flux to the foil is attained and serves as the reference. The Taylor bubble is then injected into the pipe. The heat transfer coefficient variations due to the passage of a Taylor bubble propagating in a vertical pipe is measured as function of the distance of the measuring point from the bottom of the moving Taylor bubble. Thus, the results represent the local heat transfer coefficients. Multiple independent runs preformed under identical conditions allow accumulating sufficient data to calculate reliable ensemble-averaged results on the transient convective heat transfer. In order to perform this in a frame of reference moving with the bubble, the location of the bubble along the pipe has to be known at all times. Detailed description of measurements of the length and of the translational velocity of the Taylor bubbles by optical probes is presented.

This manuscript describes methods aimed at measuring the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients in a single or two-phase pipe flow. A simple optical method to determine the length and the propagation velocity of an elongated (Taylor) air bubble moving at a constant velocity is also presented.

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer ...

Measurement of Dynamic Force Acted on Water Strider Leg Jumping Upward by the PVDF Film Sensor

This study aimed to make an explanation for the phenomenon in nature that water strider usually jumps or glides on the water surface easily but quickly, with its peak locomotion speed reaching 150 cm/s. First of all, we observed the microstructure and hierarchy of water strider legs using the scanning electron microscope. On the basis of the observed morphology of the legs, a theoretical model of the detachment from water surface was established, which explained water striders' capability to slide on water surface effortlessly in terms of energy reduction. Secondly, a dynamic force measurement system was devised using the PVDF film sensor with excellent sensitivity, which could detect the whole interaction process. Subsequently, a single leg in contact with water was pulled upward at different speeds, and the adhesion force was measured at the same time. The results of the departing experiment suggested a deep understanding of the fast jumping of water striders.

The protocol here is dedicated to investigating the free and quick maneuvering of water strider on water surface. The protocol includes observing the microstructure of legs and measuring the adhesion force when departing from water surface at different speeds.

This study aimed to make an explanation for the phenomenon in nature that water strider usually jumps or glides on the water surface easily but quickly, ...