Name: fat-water phantoms for magnetic resonance imaging validation: a flexible and scalable protocol
Uploaded: 2018-09-07T13:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fat-Water Phantoms for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Validation: A Flexible and Scalable Protocol at JoVE.com

Funding support for this research was provided the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/NIH R01-DK-105371. We thank Dr. Houchun (Harry) Hu for advice and suggestions on fat water phantom creation.

1. Prepare the Workstation and Materials
<ol>
	<li>Adhere to all laboratory safety rules. Wear eye protection and gloves. Read the material safety data sheet for each of the reagents used and take appropriate precautions. Review the materials and equipment list, chemical handling procedures, and glassware precautions. 
	Caution: This protocol requires the use of a hotplate at high temperatures. Use caution and wear heat resistant gloves when interacting with hot containers and do not touch the surface of the hotpl...

<ol>
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F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+pancreatic+lipomatosis+and+liver+steatosis+by+MRI:+comparison+of+in/opposed-phase+and+spectral-spatial+excitation+techniques.">Quantification of pancreatic lipomatosis and liver steatosis by MRI: comparison of in/opposed-phase and spectral-spatial excitation techniques.</a> Invest Radiol. 43 (5), 330-337 (2008).</li><li>Wokke, B. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+MRI+and+strength+measurements+in+the+assessment+of+muscle+quality+in+Duchenne+muscular+dystrophy.">Quantitative MRI and strength measurements in the assessment of muscle quality in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.</a> Neuromuscul Disord. 24 (5), 409-416 (2014).</li><li>Fischer, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liver+Fat+Quantification+by+Dual-echo+MR+Imaging+Outperforms+Traditional+Histopathological+Analysis.">Liver Fat Quantification by Dual-echo MR Imaging Outperforms Traditional Histopathological Analysis.</a> Acad Radiol. 19 (10), 1208-1214 (2012).</li><li>Hayashi, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+Gd-EOB-DTPA+on+proton+density+fat+fraction+using+the+six-echo+Dixon+method+in+3+Tesla+magnetic+resonance+imaging.">Influence of Gd-EOB-DTPA on proton density fat fraction using the six-echo Dixon method in 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging.</a> Radiol Phys Technol. , (2017).</li><li>Hines, C. D. G., Yu, H., Shimakawa, A., McKenzie, C. A., Brittain, J. H., Reeder, S. 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W., Langton, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+fat+quantification+methods:+A+phantom+study+at+3.0T.">Comparison of fat quantification methods: A phantom study at 3.0T.</a> J Magn Reson Imaging. , (2008).</li><li>Poon, C., Szumowski, J., Plewes, D., Ashby, P., Henkelman, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fat/Water+Quantitation+and+Differential+Relaxation+Time+Measurement+Using+Chemical+Shift+Imagin+Technique.">Fat/Water Quantitation and Differential Relaxation Time Measurement Using Chemical Shift Imagin Technique.</a> Magn Reson Imaging. 7 (4), 369-382 (1989).</li><li>Yu, H., Shimakawa, A., Mckenzie, C. a., Brodsky, E., Brittain, J. H., Reeder, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-Echo+Water-Fat+Separation+and+Simultaneous+R2*+Estimation+with+Multi-Frequency+Fat+Spectrum+Modeling.">Multi-Echo Water-Fat Separation and Simultaneous R2* Estimation with Multi-Frequency Fat Spectrum Modeling.</a> Spectrum. 60 (5), 1122-1134 (2011).</li><li>Peri, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The extra-virgin olive oil handbook. , (2014).</li><li>Kell, G. 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We describe a robust method to create fat water phantoms suitable for validating the medical imaging techniques used to quantify adipose tissue and triglyceride content in vivo. By creating two reservoirs (one for the oil solution and one for the water solution), stable phantoms with a variety of FF values &#8211; including values exceeding 50% &#8211; were constructed without the need for expensive equipment. High FF phantoms (&#62;50%) provide the utility to ensure imaging techniques for adipose quantification...

Interest in quantifying adipose tissue and triglyceride content using imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), extends across many fields. Research areas include the investigation of white and brown adipose tissue depots and ectopic storage of lipid in organs and tissues such as the liver1, pancreas2, and skeletal muscle3. As these novel techniques for adipose quantification are developed, methods are needed to confirm that imaging parameters are valid for research and clinical applications.
Phantoms, experimental replicas of a tissue or organ, provide a low-cost, flexible, and controlled tool to develop and validate imaging techniques4. Specifically, phantoms can be constructed to consist of fat and water in a volume ratio or fat fraction (FF) comparable to that of the tissue of clinical interest. Clinically, FF values in tissues and organs can vary widely: FF in brown adipose tissue falls between 29.7% and 93.9%5; the average liver FF in steatosis patients is 18.1 &#177; 9.0%6; the pancreatic FF in adults at risk for type 2 diabetes ranges between 1.6% and 22.2%7; and in some cases of advance disease, patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy can have FF values of almost 90% in some muscles8.
Because non-polar molecules such as lipids do not dissolve well in solutions composed of polar molecules such as water, creating stable phantoms with a high target FF remains challenging. For FF up to 50%, many existing methods can be used to create fat water phantoms9,10,11,12. Other methods that achieve higher FFs typically require expensive equipment such as a homogenizer or an ultrasonic cell disruptor13,14. Although these techniques provide a roadmap for high FF phantoms, equipment constraints and varying amounts of experimental details limit the efforts to create reproducible and robust fat water phantoms.
Building upon these previous techniques, we developed a method to construct cost-effective and stable fat water phantoms across a customizable range of FF values. This protocol details the steps needed to make 5x 100 mL of fat phantoms with FF values of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% using a single hotplate. It can easily be adjusted to create various volumes (10 to 200 mL) and fat percentages (0 to 100%). The efficacy of the phantom technique was evaluated in the feasibility study comparing fat-water MRI FF values to the target FF values in the constructed phantoms.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled Water</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>B000P9BY38</td>
			<td>Base of water solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>A1296-100G</td>
			<td>Gelling agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water-Soluble Surfactant</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>P1379-500ML</td>
			<td>Surfactant/emulsifying agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gadolinium-DTPA Contrast Agent</td>
			<td>Bayer Healthcare</td>
			<td>50419-0188-01</td>
			<td>Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agent.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Benzoate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>71300-250G</td>
			<td>Preservative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peanut Oil</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>54782-LOU</td>
			<td>Base of oil solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oil-Soluble Surfactant</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>S6760-250ML</td>
			<td>Surfactant/emulsifying agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hotplate w/ Stirrer</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>07-770-152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stir bars (Egg-Shaped)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>Z127116-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>400 mL Beaker</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>CLS1003400-48EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>250 mL Erlenmeyer Flask</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>CLS4450250-6EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25 mL Glass Volumetric Pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-650-2P</td>
			<td>Quantity = 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Glass Volumetric Pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-650-2S</td>
			<td>Quantity = 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>75 mL Glass Volumetric Pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-650-2T</td>
			<td>Quantity = 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3.0 mL Syringe</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>Z248002-1PAK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.0 mL Syringe</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>Z230723-1PAK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spatula</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>S3897-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scale (100g X 0.01g Resolution)</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>AWS-100-BLK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weigh Boats</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>Z740499-500EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>120 mL Glass Jars</td>
			<td>McMaster Carr Supply Co</td>
			<td>3801T73</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat Resistant Gloves (pair)</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>B075GX43MN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Needles</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich Incorporated</td>
			<td>Z192341-100EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>18&#34; stir bar retriver</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-513-70</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 Dram Clear Glass Vial</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>03-339-25B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fat-water phantoms for magnetic resonance imaging validation: a flexible and scalable protocol

As new techniques are developed to image adipose tissue, methods to validate such protocols are becoming increasingly important. Phantoms, experimental replicas of a tissue or organ of interest, provide a low cost, flexible solution. However, without access to expensive and specialized equipment, constructing stable phantoms with high fat fractions (e.g., &#62;50% fat fraction levels such as those seen in brown adipose tissue) can be difficult due to the hydrophobic nature of lipids. This work presents a detailed, low cost protocol for creating 5x 100 mL&#160;phantoms with fat fractions of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% using basic lab supplies (hotplate, beakers, etc.) and easily accessible components (distilled water, agar, water-soluble surfactant, sodium benzoate, gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentacetate (DTPA) contrast agent, peanut oil, and oil-soluble surfactant). The protocol was designed to be flexible; it can be used to create phantoms with different fat fractions and a wide range of volumes. Phantoms created with this technique were evaluated in the feasibility study that compared the fat fraction values from fat-water magnetic resonance imaging to the target values in the constructed phantoms. This study yielded a concordance correlation coefficient of 0.998 (95% confidence interval: 0.972-1.00). In summary, these studies demonstrate the utility of&#160;fat phantoms for validating adipose tissue imaging techniques across a range of clinically relevant tissues and organs.

If the water solution has been prepared correctly, a small amount of the solution should congeal quickly in a test vial (Figure 1, left). If the solution separates (Figure 1, right), the solution should be prepared again (as instructed in step 3.8 of the protocol). If the emulsion separates (examples in Figure 2, left and right), the phantom is not v...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fat-Water Phantoms for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Validation: A Flexible and Scalable Protocol at JoVE.com

Fat-Water Phantoms for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Validation: A Flexible and Scalable Protocol

The purpose of this work is to describe a protocol for creating a practical fat-water phantom that can be customized to produce phantoms with varying fat percentages and volumes.

As new techniques are developed to image adipose tissue, methods to validate such protocols are becoming increasingly important. Phantoms, experimental ...

This method can help to optimize magnetic resonance imaging sequences and sequence parameters for quantitative fat-water imagining of tissues with high fat fractions. The main advantage of this technique is that it can be performed using commonly available lab supplies that can be purchased at a relatively low cost. Generally, individuals new to this method will struggle because creating stable phantoms with fat fractions greater than 50%is difficult due to the hydrophobic nature of the lipids.To prepare the water solution, first place a stir bar into a 400 milliliter beaker. Then, use a 100 or 200 milliliter graduated cylinder to measure 300 milliliters of distilled water, and pour the water into the beaker. Place the beaker on the hot plate and set at 90 degrees Celsius with a stir rate of 100 RPM.Use a calibrated scale to measure 0.30 grams of sodium benzoate into a weigh boat. Add the sodium benzoate to the water solution. Next, use a syringe to measure 0.6 milliliters of the water soluble surfactant.Make sure there are no air bubbles. Hold the needle a few milliliters over the center of the solution, and slowly release the water soluble surfactant to avoid splatter on the walls of the beaker. Using a clean syringe, measure 0.24 milliliters of the gadolinium DTPA contrast agent.Add it to the beaker using the same technique. Then, slowly spoon the 9.0 grams of agar with a spatula into the beaker with water. Once everything has been added to the water solution, increase the hot plate temperature to 350 degrees Celsius and stir bar speed to 1100 RPM for five to 10 minutes to melt the agar.To check if the agar is melted, briefly remove the water solution from the hot plate, stop stirring, and check the color of the solution. Melted agar should be clear and yellow or amber in color. Once the agar is fully melted, remove the water solution beaker from the hot place and pour about 3.5 milliliters of the water solution into a one dram vial.Check the solution to ensure it is clear and homogenous. Leave the water solution on the hot place at 50 degrees Celsius and 100 RPM. Clean the workspace and prepare for the oil solution.Peanut oil is used for the oil solution because it has a similar nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum as compared to triglycerides and human adipose tissue. Place a new stir bar into a clean 400 milliliter beaker. Use a graduated cylinder to measure 300 milliliters of peanut oil, and pour into the beaker.Remove the beaker containing the water solution and place the oil solution beaker on the hot plate. Set the hot plate to 90 degrees Celsius with a stir of 100 RPM for one minute. Do not leave the oil on the hot plate unattended.Measure 3.0 milliliters of the oil soluble surfactant with a clean syringe. Using the same technique as before, add the oil soluble surfactant to the beaker. Set the hot plate to 150 degrees Celsius and 1100 RPM for five minutes to fully mix the oil solution.Take the oil solution off the hot place and clean the workspace in preparation for creating the phantom. To create the phantom emulsion, prepare volumetric pipettes for the oil and water solution. Volumetric pipettes should only be used for the respective solution to prevent cross-contamination.Match the size of the pipette to the volume being used in the protocol. For example, use two 50 milliliter volumetric pipettes to create a 100 milliliter phantom with a target fat fraction of 50%fat. Place the water solution on the hot plate and set the hot plate to 300 degrees Celsius and 1100 RPM.After four to five minutes, turn the stir off. Using a volumetric pipette, check if the water solution is ready for extraction by partially filling the pipette with a small amount of the solution and releasing it back into the beaker. If the water solution can be easily removed and released without excessive remnants in the pipette, move onto the next step.Otherwise, leave it on the hot plate and check again in two to three minutes. Now, carefully add a clean stir bar to a 250 milliliter Erlenmeyer flask. Take the water solution off the hot plate, measure the proper volume, and transfer it to the Erlenmeyer flask.Place the oil solution on the hot plate and set at 90 degrees Celsius and 1100 RPM to ensure the solution is homogenous. After one to two minutes, remove the oil solution from the hot plate and replace it with the Erlenmeyer flask. Measure the proper amount of the oil solution and slowly add to the water solution into the Erlenmeyer flask.Now you'll be able to find if your previous steps in creating the emulsion have worked. Once all oil solution has been added, increase the temperature to 300 degrees Celsius and maintain the stirring at 1100 RPM for four to five minutes. There should be a vortex from the stir bar.The emulsion should be white with a creamy texture. Now, remove the stir bar with a magnetic stir bar retriever. Use heat resistant gloves to carefully pour the mixture in the Erlenmeyer flask into a clean 120 milliliter glass jar.Slowly pour the mixture down the side of the glass jar to prevent bubbles in the mixture as it cools. After cleaning the Erlenmeyer flask and stir bar, repeat these steps, adjusting the amounts of water and oil solutions, until all phantoms are created. Successful phantoms will congeal to form a homogenous mixture, which can be imaged and measured via magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI.Shown here are pictures of slight color differences in the constructed phantoms, with fat fractions of 0%25%50%75%and 100%Proton density fat signal fraction, or FSF maps, obtained from magnetic resonance imaging, reveal a homogenous FSF measurement similar to the target fat content. A high concordance correlation coefficient and the inclusion of the line of identity within the 95%confidence band of the regression line suggests the mean MRI-observed FSF values did not differ significantly from the known FF values in the fat water phantoms. We first had the idea for this method when we attempted to make some of our own high fat fraction phantoms for our studies of human brown adipose tissue, and we found that many of the methods described in the literature were either incompletely described or required expensive equipment.After watching this video, you should have a good idea how to create phantoms with fat fractions greater than 50%While attempting this procedure, it is critical to have accurately measured the amount of oil and water solution that will be used in the emulsion. This is important because the ratio ultimately determines the fat fraction of the phantom.

fat-water-phantoms-for-magnetic-resonance-imaging-validation-flexible

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Magnetic Resonance Derived Myocardial Strain Assessment Using Feature Tracking

Purpose: An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that strain is a more sensitive and earlier marker for contractile dysfunction than the frequently used parameter EF. Current technologies for CMR are time consuming and difficult to implement in clinical practice. Feature tracking is a technology that can lead to more automization and robustness of quantitative analysis of medical images with less time consumption than comparable methods.
Methods: An automatic or manual input in a single phase serves as an initialization from which the system starts to track the displacement of individual patterns representing anatomical structures over time. The specialty of this method is that the images do not need to be manipulated in any way beforehand like e.g. tagging of CMR images.
Results: The method is very well suited for tracking muscular tissue and with this allowing quantitative elaboration of myocardium and also blood flow.
Conclusions: This new method offers a robust and time saving procedure to quantify myocardial tissue and blood with displacement, velocity and deformation parameters on regular sequences of CMR imaging. It therefore can be implemented in clinical practice.

An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that strain is a more sensitive and earlier marker for contractile dysfunction than the frequently used parameter EF.

Purpose: An accurate and practical method to measure parameters like strain in myocardial tissue is of great clinical value, since it has been shown, that ...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Quantification of Pulmonary Perfusion using Calibrated Arterial Spin Labeling

This demonstrates a MR imaging method to measure the spatial distribution of pulmonary blood flow in healthy subjects 
during normoxia (inspired O2, fraction (FIO2) = 0.21) hypoxia (FIO2 = 0.125), and hyperoxia 
(FIO2 = 1.00). In addition, the physiological responses of the subject are monitored in the MR scan environment. MR images 
were obtained on a 1.5 T GE MRI scanner during a breath hold from a sagittal slice in the right lung at functional residual capacity. An arterial 
spin labeling sequence (ASL-FAIRER) was used to measure the spatial distribution of pulmonary blood flow 1,2 and a multi-echo fast 
gradient echo (mGRE) sequence 3 was used to quantify the regional proton (i.e. H2O) density, allowing the quantification 
of density-normalized perfusion for each voxel (milliliters blood per minute per gram lung tissue). 
With a pneumatic switching valve and facemask equipped with a 2-way non-rebreathing valve, different oxygen concentrations 
were introduced to the subject in the MR scanner through the inspired gas tubing. A metabolic cart collected expiratory gas via expiratory tubing. Mixed expiratory O2 and CO2 concentrations, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, respiratory exchange ratio, 
respiratory frequency and tidal volume were measured. Heart rate and oxygen saturation were monitored using pulse-oximetry. 
Data obtained from a normal subject showed that, as expected, heart rate was higher in hypoxia (60 bpm) than during normoxia (51) or hyperoxia (50) and the arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) was reduced during hypoxia to 86%. Mean ventilation was 8.31 L/min BTPS during hypoxia, 7.04 L/min during normoxia, and 6.64 L/min during hyperoxia. Tidal volume was 0.76 L during hypoxia, 0.69 L during normoxia, and 0.67 L during hyperoxia. 
Representative quantified ASL data showed that the mean density normalized perfusion was 8.86 ml/min/g during hypoxia, 8.26 ml/min/g during normoxia and 8.46 ml/min/g during hyperoxia, respectively. In this subject, the relative dispersion4, an index of global heterogeneity, was increased in hypoxia (1.07 during hypoxia, 0.85 during normoxia, and 0.87 during hyperoxia) while the fractal dimension (Ds), another index of heterogeneity reflecting vascular branching structure, was unchanged (1.24 during hypoxia, 1.26 during normoxia, and 1.26 during hyperoxia). 
Overview. This protocol will demonstrate the acquisition of data to measure the distribution of pulmonary perfusion noninvasively under conditions of normoxia, hypoxia, and hyperoxia using a magnetic resonance imaging technique known as arterial spin labeling (ASL). 
Rationale: Measurement of pulmonary blood flow and lung proton density using MR technique offers high spatial resolution images which can be quantified and the ability to perform repeated measurements under several different physiological conditions. In human studies, PET, SPECT, and CT are commonly used as the alternative techniques. However, these techniques involve exposure to ionizing radiation, and thus are not suitable for repeated measurements in human subjects.

A MR imaging method to study the distribution of pulmonary blood flow under a variety of physiological conditions, in this case exposure to three different inspired oxygen concentrations: hypoxia, normoxia, and hyperoxia, is described. This technique utilizes human pulmonary physiology research techniques in an MR scanning environment.

This demonstrates a MR imaging method to measure the spatial distribution of pulmonary blood flow in healthy subjects 
during normoxia (inspired O2, ...

Tracking the Mammary Architectural Features and Detecting Breast Cancer with Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Tensor Imaging

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer among women worldwide. Early detection of breast cancer has a critical role in improving the quality of life and survival of breast cancer patients. In this paper a new approach for the detection of breast cancer is described, based on tracking the mammary architectural elements using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). 
The paper focuses on the scanning protocols and image processing algorithms and software that were designed to fit the diffusion properties of the mammary fibroglandular tissue and its changes during malignant transformation. The final output yields pixel by pixel vector maps that track the architecture of the entire mammary ductal glandular trees and parametric maps of the diffusion tensor coefficients and anisotropy indices. 
The efficiency of the method to detect breast cancer was tested by scanning women volunteers including 68 patients with breast cancer confirmed by histopathology findings. Regions with cancer cells exhibited a marked reduction in the diffusion coefficients and in the maximal anisotropy index as compared to the normal breast tissue, providing an intrinsic contrast for delineating the boundaries of malignant growth. Overall, the sensitivity of the DTI parameters to detect breast cancer was found to be high, particularly in dense breasts, and comparable to the current standard breast MRI method that requires injection of a contrast agent. Thus, this method offers a completely non-invasive, safe and sensitive tool for breast cancer detection.

We describe how to obtain parametric and vector maps of the diffusion tensor of the breast using magnetic resonance imaging. The protocol and final output following imaging processing are tailored for tracking breast architectural features and detecting breast malignancy.

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer among women worldwide. Early detection of breast cancer has a critical role in improving the quality of ...

Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Skeletal Muscle Disease

Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) describes the development and use of MRI to quantify physical, chemical, and/or biological properties of living systems. Neuromuscular diseases often exhibit a temporally varying, spatially heterogeneous, and multi-faceted pathology. The goal of this protocol is to characterize this pathology using qMRI methods. The MRI acquisition protocol begins with localizer images (used to locate the position of the body and tissue of interest within the MRI system), quality control measurements of relevant magnetic field distributions, and structural imaging for general anatomical characterization. The qMRI portion of the protocol includes measurements of the longitudinal and transverse relaxation time constants (T1 and T2, respectively). Also acquired are diffusion-tensor MRI data, in which water diffusivity is measured and used to infer pathological processes such as edema. Quantitative magnetization transfer imaging is used to characterize the relative tissue content of macromolecular and free water protons. Lastly, fat-water MRI methods are used to characterize fibro-adipose tissue replacement of muscle. In addition to describing the data acquisition and analysis procedures, this paper also discusses the potential problems associated with these methods, the analysis and interpretation of the data, MRI safety, and strategies for artifact reduction and protocol optimization.

Neuromuscular diseases often exhibit a temporally varying, spatially heterogeneous, and multi-faceted pathology. The goal of this protocol is to characterize this pathology using non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging methods.

Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) describes the development and use of MRI to quantify physical, chemical, and/or biological properties of ...

Simultaneous PET/MRI Imaging During Mouse Cerebral Hypoxia-ischemia

Dynamic changes in tissue water diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after hypoxia in cerebral hypoxia-ischemia reflecting a bioenergetics disturbance in affected cells. Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) identifies regions that are damaged, potentially irreversibly, by hypoxia-ischemia. Alterations in glucose utilization in the affected tissue may be detectable by positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of 2-deoxy-2-(18F)fluoro-&#7429;-glucose ([18F]FDG) uptake. Due to the rapid and variable nature of injury in this animal model, acquisition of both modes of data must be performed simultaneously in order to meaningfully correlate PET and MRI data. In addition, inter-animal variability in the hypoxic-ischemic injury due to vascular differences limits the ability to analyze multi-modal data and observe changes to a group-wise approach if data is not acquired simultaneously in individual subjects. The method presented here allows one to acquire both diffusion-weighted MRI and [18F]FDG uptake data in the same animal before, during, and after the hypoxic challenge in order to interrogate immediate physiological changes.

The method presented here uses simultaneous positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. In the cerebral hypoxia-ischemia model, dynamic changes in diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after injury. The evolving and irreproducible damage in this model necessitates simultaneous acquisition if meaningful multi-modal imaging data are to be acquired.

Dynamic changes in tissue water diffusion and glucose metabolism occur during and after hypoxia in cerebral hypoxia-ischemia reflecting a bioenergetics ...

In Vivo Tracking of Edema Development and Microvascular Pathology in a Model of Experimental Cerebral Malaria Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Cerebral malaria is a sign of severe malarial disease and is often a harbinger of death. While aggressive management can be life-saving, the detection of cerebral malaria can be difficult. We present an experimental mouse model of cerebral malaria that shares multiple features of the human disease, including edema and microvascular pathology. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we can detect and track the blood-brain barrier disruption, edema development, and subsequent brain swelling. We describe multiple MRI techniques that can visualize these pertinent pathological changes. Thus, we show that MRI represents a valuable tool to visualize and track pathological changes, such as edema, brain swelling, and microvascular pathology, in vivo.

In Vivo Tracking of Edema Development and Microvascular Pathology in a Model of Experimental Cerebral Malaria Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

We describe a mouse model of experimental cerebral malaria and show how inflammatory and microvascular pathology can be tracked in vivo using magnetic resonance imaging.

Cerebral malaria is a sign of severe malarial disease and is often a harbinger of death. While aggressive management can be life-saving, the detection of ...

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging at 7 Tesla

CMR at an ultra-high field (magnetic field strength B0&#160;&#8805; 7 Tesla) benefits from the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) advantage inherent at higher magnetic field strengths and potentially provides improved signal contrast and spatial resolution. While promising results have been achieved, ultra-high field CMR is challenging due to energy deposition constraints and physical phenomena such as transmission field non-uniformities and magnetic field inhomogeneities. In addition, the magneto-hydrodynamic effect renders the synchronization of the data acquisition with the cardiac motion difficult. The challenges are currently addressed by explorations into novel magnetic resonance technology. If all impediments can be overcome, ultra-high field CMR may generate new opportunities for functional CMR, myocardial tissue characterization, microstructure imaging or metabolic imaging. Recognizing this potential, we show that multi-channel radio frequency (RF) coil technology tailored for CMR at 7 Tesla together with higher order B0 shimming and a backup signal for cardiac triggering facilitates high fidelity functional CMR. With the proposed setup, cardiac chamber quantification can be accomplished in examination times similar to those achieved at lower field strengths. To share this experience and to support the dissemination of this expertise, this work describes our setup and protocol tailored for functional CMR at 7 Tesla.

The sensitivity gain inherent to ultrahigh field magnetic resonance holds promise for high spatial resolution imaging of the heart. Here, we describe a protocol customized for functional cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) at 7 Tesla using an advanced multi-channel radio-frequency coil, magnetic field shimming and a triggering concept.

CMR at an ultra-high field (magnetic field strength B0&#160;&#8805; 7 Tesla) benefits from the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) advantage inherent at higher ...

Phase Contrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Rat Common Carotid Artery

Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) is a noninvasive approach that can quantify flow-related parameters such as blood flow. Previous studies have shown that abnormal blood flow may be associated with systemic vascular risk. Thus, PC-MRI can facilitate the translation of data obtained from animal models of cardiovascular diseases to pertinent clinical investigations. In this report, we describe the procedure for measuring blood flow in the common carotid artery (CCA) of rats using cine-gated PC-MRI and discuss relevant analysis methods. This procedure can be performed in a live, anesthetized animal and does not require euthanasia after the procedure. The proposed scanning parameters yield repeatable measurements for blood flow, indicating excellent reproducibility of the results. The PC-MRI procedure described in this article can be used for pharmacological testing, pathophysiological assessment, and cerebral hemodynamics evaluation.

The overall goal of this procedure is to measure the blood flow in the rat common carotid artery by using noninvasive phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging.

Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) is a noninvasive approach that can quantify flow-related parameters such as blood flow. Previous ...

Quantification of Levator Ani Hiatus Enlargement by Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Males and Females with Pelvic Organ Prolapse

Here we present a protocol to examine the levator ani hiatus in males and females with pelvic organ prolapse, during the Valsalva maneuver and while evacuating acoustic gel, using a horizontally oriented 1.5 T magnetic resonance (MR) scanner. On midsagittal images, the vertical distance of pelvic organs is measured in millimeters relative to the hymen plane (female) and to the lower border of the symphysis pubis (male), preceded by - (above) or + ( below) signs. On axial images, the levator ani area is calculated in square centimeters with a free-hand tracing method from three key images, passing through the midsymphysis (level I), tangential to the lower border of the symphysis (level II), and at the maximal anterior rectal wall bulging (level III). Areas at rest and strained are compared to find evidence of a percentage of increase. The purpose is to provide objective evidence of the maximal extent of pelvic organs descent and hiatus enlargement without the interference of foreign objects or the examiner&#39;s proximity, so as to overcome the limitations of pelvic examination and transperineal sonography (i.e., subjectivity and sex-related limitations [female only]).

Here we present a protocol to standardize the measurement of the levator ani hiatus size&#160;by magnetic resonance imaging. The purpose is to extract biomechanical inferences from image analysis by comparing resting and straining values in patients of both sexes with pelvic prolapse, using consistent anatomical bony landmarks.

Here we present a protocol to examine the levator ani hiatus in males and females with pelvic organ prolapse, during the Valsalva maneuver and while ...

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance for the Evaluation of Suspected Cardiac Thrombus: Conventional and Emerging Techniques

We present the conventional cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) protocol for evaluating a suspected thrombus and highlight emerging techniques.&#160;The appearance of a mass on certain magnetic resonance (MR) sequences can help differentiate a thrombus from competing diagnoses such as a tumor. T1 and T2 signal characteristics of a thrombus are related to the evolution of hemoglobin properties. A thrombus typically does not enhance following contrast administration, which also helps differentiation from a tumor. We also highlight the emerging role of T1 mapping in the evaluation of a thrombus, which can add another level of support in diagnosis. Prior to any CMR exam, patient screening and interviews are critical to ensure safety and to optimize patient comfort. Effective communication during the exam between the technologist and the patient promotes proper breath holding technique and higher quality images. Volumetric post processing and structured reporting are helpful to ensure that the radiologist answers the ordering services&#39; question and communicates these results effectively. Optimal pre-MR safety evaluation, CMR exam execution, and post exam processing and reporting allow for delivery of high quality radiological service in the evaluation of a suspected cardiac thrombus.

The goal of this article is to describe how cardiac magnetic resonance can be used for the evaluation and diagnosis of a suspected cardiac thrombus. The method presented will describe data acquisition as well as the pre-procedure and post-procedure protocol.

We present the conventional cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) protocol for evaluating a suspected thrombus and highlight emerging techniques.&#160;The ...