Name: fabrication and characterization of disordered polymer optical fibers for transverse anderson localization of light
Uploaded: 2013-07-29T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light at JoVE.com

This research is supported by grant number 1029547 from the National Science Foundation. The authors would like to acknowledge D.J. Welker from Paradigm Optics Inc. for providing the initial fiber segments and the redrawing of the final optical fiber. Authors also acknowledge Steven Hardcastle and Heather A. Owen for SEM imaging.

1. Fabricating a Disordered Polymer Optical Fiber
<ol>
	<li>Spread about 200 of the PMMA strands on a table and spread the same number of PS strands on top of the PMMA. Mix and repack the strands. Repeat this procedure until 40,000 strands of PMMA are randomly mixed with 40,000 strands of PS.</li>
	<li>Assemble the randomly mixed strands into a square preform with a side width of about 2.5 inches.</li>
	<li>Draw the preform into an optical fiber with a diameter of 250 &mu;m . The preform is drawn at Paradigm Optics Inc...

<ol>
	<li>Anderson, P. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Absence+of+diffusion+in+certain+random+lattices.">Absence of diffusion in certain random lattices.</a> Phys. Rev. 109, 1492-1505 (1958).</li><li>John, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strong+localization+of+photons+in+certain+disordered+dielectric+super+lattices.">Strong localization of photons in certain disordered dielectric super lattices.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 2486-2489 (1987).</li><li>Anderson, P. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+question+of+classical+localization:+a+theory+of+white+paint?.">The question of classical localization: a theory of white paint?.</a> Phil. Mag. 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Lett. 62, 47 (1989).</li><li>Schwartz, T., Bartal, G., Fishman, S., Segev, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transport+and+Anderson+localization+in+disordered+two+dimensional+photonic+lattices.">Transport and Anderson localization in disordered two dimensional photonic lattices.</a> Nature. 446, 52-55 (2007).</li><li>Szameit, A., Kartashov, Y. V., Zeil, P., Dreisow, F., Heinrich, M., Keil, R., Nolte, S., Tunnermann, A., Vysloukh, V. A., Torner, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wave+localization+at+the+boundary+of+disordered+photonic+lattices.">Wave localization at the boundary of disordered photonic lattices.</a> Opt. Lett. 35, 1172-1174 (2010).</li><li>Martin, L., Giuseppe, G. D., Perez-Leij, A. a., Keil, R., Dreisow, F., Heinrich, M., Nolte, S., Szameit, A., Abouraddy, A. F., Christodoulides, D. N., Saleh, B. E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anderson+localization+in+optical+waveguide+arrays+with+off-diagonal+coupling+disorder.">Anderson localization in optical waveguide arrays with off-diagonal coupling disorder.</a> Opt. Express. 19, 13636-13646 (2011).</li><li>Lahini, Y., Avidan, A., Pozzi, F., Sorel, M., Morandotti, R., Christodoulides, D. N., Silberberg, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anderson+localization+and+nonlinearity+in+one-dimensional+disordered+photonic+lattices.">Anderson localization and nonlinearity in one-dimensional disordered photonic lattices.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 013906 (2008).</li><li>Karbasi, S., Mirr, C. R., Yarandi, P. G., Frazier, R. J., Koch, K. W., Mafi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observation+of+transverse+Anderson+localization+in+an+optical+fiber.">Observation of transverse Anderson localization in an optical fiber.</a> Opt. Lett. 37, 2304-2306 (2012).</li><li>Karbasi, S., Mirr, C. R., Frazier, R. J., Yarandi, P. G., Koch, K. W., Mafi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detailed+investigation+of+the+impact+of+the+fiber+design+parameters+on+the+transverse+Anderson+localization+of+light+in+disordered+optical+fibers.">Detailed investigation of the impact of the fiber design parameters on the transverse Anderson localization of light in disordered optical fibers.</a> Opt. Express. 20, 18692-18706 (2012).</li><li>Karbasi, S., Koch, K. W., Mafi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple-beam+propagation+in+an+Anderson+localized+optical+fiber.">Multiple-beam propagation in an Anderson localized optical fiber.</a> Opt. Express. 21, (2013).</li><li>Abdi, O., Wong, K. C., Hassan, T., Peters, K. J., Kowalsky, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cleaving+of+solid+single+mode+polymer+optical+fiber+for+strain+sensor+applications.">Cleaving of solid single mode polymer optical fiber for strain sensor applications.</a> Opt. Commun. 282, 856-861 (2009).</li><li>Karbasi, S., Koch, K. 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In the fiber draw process, the refractive index profile does not remain constant for more than a meter, both because of the cross-overs of the original fiber strands and also because of the variations of the fiber diameter in the draw process. We expect that a more stable draw process will help to fabricate an optical fiber that is invariant over longer fiber lengths compared with that reported here.
In preparing a sample for the SEM imaging of the fiber tip, we need to ensure that the sample ...

In a theoretical work by P.W. Anderson 1, it was shown that in the presence of disorder in a quantum electronic system, the diffusion process stops and localized electronic states develop. Anderson localization is a wave phenomenon that can also occur for classical waves such as light. Since the theoretical prediction of Anderson localization in optics 2,3, there have been many efforts to realize this phenomenon experimentally with electromagnetic waves 4,5. However, it has been very difficult to achieve strong localization because the optical scattering cross sections are often too small due to the low refractive index contrast of most optical materials. In 1989, De Raedt et al. 6 showed that it is possible to observe the Anderson localization in a quasi-two-dimensional disordered optical system with low refractive index contrasts. They showed that if the disorder is confined to the transverse plane of a propagating wave in a longitudinally invariant medium, the beam can remain confined to a small region in the transverse direction due to strong transverse scattering. Transverse Anderson localization was first observed in two-dimensional waveguides that were created by using interference patterns in a photo-refractive crystal 7. Fused silica is the other medium that has been used for the observation of transverse Anderson localization 8,9, where disordered waveguides are written using femtosecond pulses along the sample. The refractive index difference of disordered sites in the above mentioned systems are on the order of 10-4 , so the localization radius is quite large. Additionally, the typical waveguides are usually not longer than several centimeters; therefore, they may not be practical for guided-wave applications. We point out that the observation of transverse Anderson localization in a one-dimensional disordered waveguide was reported earlier in Ref 10.
The optical fiber developed here has several advantages over the previous realizations of transverse Anderson localization for guided-wave applications 11,12. First, the large refractive difference of 0.1 between the disorder sites of the fiber results in a small localized beam comparable to the beam radius of regular optical fibers. Second, the polymer disordered optical fiber can be made much longer than the disordered waveguides written externally into photorefractive crystals or fused silica. We were able to observe transverse Anderson localization in a 60-cm-long fiber 11. Third, the polymer disordered optical fiber is flexible, making it practical for real world device-level applications that rely on the transport of light waves in fibers 13.
In order to fabricate the disordered optical fiber, 40,000 strands of PMMA and 40,000 strands of PS were randomly mixed, where each strand was 8 inches long and 250 &mu;m in diameter. The randomly mixed strands were assembled into a square cross-section preform with a side-width of about 2.5 inches. The preform was then drawn to a square optical fiber with a side width of about 250 &mu;m (Figure 1). In order to randomly mix the original fiber strands, we spread a layer of PMMA fiber strands on a large table, added a layer of PS fiber strands, and then randomly mixed them together. The procedure was repeated many times until a good random mixture was obtained.
We used a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to image the refractive index profile of the disordered polymer optical fiber. Regular cleaving techniques such as using a sharp heated blade cannot be used to prepare the fiber samples for the SEM imaging of the fiber end to map its refractive index profile, because the blade damages the morphology of the fiber end. Polishing the fiber has a similar detrimental impact on the quality of the fiber end. In order to prepare high-quality samples for the SEM imaging, we submerged each fiber in liquid nitrogen for several minutes and then broke the fiber; if done on enough fiber samples, this method results in a few good fiber pieces (around 15% success rate) with very high-quality and smooth end surfaces for the SEM imaging. We then used a 70% ethyl alcohol solution at 60 &deg;C for about 3 min to dissolve the PMMA sites on the fiber end; longer exposure can disintegrate the entire fiber end. We then coated the samples with Au/Pd and placed them in the SEM chamber. The zoomed-in SEM image of the disordered polymer optical fiber is shown in Figure 2. The light gray sites are PS and the dark sites are PMMA. The total width of the image is 24 &mu;m where the smallest features sizes in this image are ~0.9 &mu;m, corresponding to the individual site sizes of the fiber strands, after the draw process.
In order to characterize the waveguide properties of the disordered optical fiber, we used a He-Ne laser at 633 nm wavelength. The He-Ne laser is coupled to a single mode SMF630hp optical fiber with a mode field diameter of about 4 &mu;m, which is then butt-coupled to the disordered polymer optical fiber using a high-precision motorized stage. The output is then imaged on a CCD camera beam profiler using a 40X objective.
In the first set of experiments, we chose 20 different disordered fiber samples, each 5-cm long; the 5-cm length was chosen to match the propagation length in our numerical simulations. The numerical simulations of the disordered fiber are generally very time consuming, even on a high performance computing cluster with 1,100 elements. The full transverse Anderson localization for the wavelength of 633 nm happens only after about 2.5 cm of propagation 11,12; therefore, we decided that the 5-cm length is sufficient for our purposes. Because of the stochastic nature of the Anderson localization, we needed to repeat both the experiments and the simulations for 100 realizations, in order to collect sufficient statistics to compare the experimental and numerical values of the average beam diameter. In practice, 100 different measurements are obtained by taking five spatially separated measurements on each of the 20 different disordered fiber samples.
It is fairly hard to prepare the disordered polymer optical fibers for measurements, compared with glass optical fibers. For example, one cannot use the advanced cleaving and polishing tools and techniques that are well-developed for standard silica-based fiber. A refined procedure for cleaving and polishing polymer optical fibers has been reported by Abdi et al. 14; we used their methods with some minor modifications to prepare our fiber samples. In order to cleave a polymer disordered optical fiber, a curved X-Acto blade is heated to 65 &deg;C , and the fiber to 37 &deg;C . The tip of the fiber is aligned on a cutting surface so that a clean, perpendicular cut can be made. The blade is placed on the side of the fiber, and quickly rolled across. The entire cleaving process should be done as fast as possible to ensure that the temperatures of the blade and fiber do not change considerably. After cleaving the fiber and inspecting it under an optical microscope, the fiber end is polished using standard fiber lapping sheets (0.3 &mu;m Thorlabs LFG03P Aluminum Oxide Polishing Paper) to ensure that any minor imperfections are removed. To polish the fiber end, it is held in a pair of tweezers with the tweezers holding the fiber approximately 1.5 mm away from the end face being polished. The fiber is drawn over the paper in one-inch long figure-8-shaped paths, approximately eight times. Polishing the fiber results in smoother edges as inspected under the optical microscope. Moreover, polishing facilitates proper coupling to a localized spot in the fiber, which in turn reduces the attenuation both in the coupling and also in the initial propagation distance before the localized spot is formed.
We used a CCD camera beam profiler to image the output beam intensity. The near-field intensity profile was captured using a 40X objective. In order to find the boundaries of the fiber, we saturated the CCD by increasing the power of the incoming light from the SMF630hp fiber. After detecting the intensity profile of the localized beam with respect to the boundaries, we set the CCD beam profiler to the auto-exposure option. We used the image of the intensity profile in order to calculate the effective beam radius. In order to remove the effect of the ambient noise, we calibrated our image processing procedure to ensure that we obtain the expected beam diameter of the SMF630hp fiber. The average measured value of the beam radius and its variations around the average value agree well with the numerical simulations, as shown in Ref. 11. The output beam profile in the polymer fiber clearly follows a change in the position of the incident beam as shown in Refs. 11,12,13.
A comprehensive study of the impact of the design parameters such as the disorder site sizes and the incident wavelength on the beam radius of the localized beam was presented in Refs.12,15.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>polystyrene (PS)</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% ethyl alcohol solution at 65 &deg;C</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication and characterization of disordered polymer optical fibers for transverse anderson localization of light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

The SEM image of the polished fiber is shown in Figure 1. The SEM image in Figure 1 shows that, for most regions of the fiber tip, the polish quality is good. The SEM image of the fiber samples with their ends dissolved in ethyl alcohol solution, Figure 2, shows the PMMA sites in dark and PS sites in gray colors. The SEM image in Figure 2 is zoomed in on a 24 &mu;m width of the fiber. For SEM imaging, the fiber samples are coated with a 10-nm thick layer...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light at JoVE.com

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

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Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Quasi-light Storage for Optical Data Packets

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This protocol describes the fabrication and characterization of nanostructures using a novel nanolithographic technique called Patterning via Optical ...

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The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic resonators.

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological ...

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We present a compact reflection digital holographic system (CDHM) for inspection and characterization of MEMS devices. A lens-less design using a diverging input wave providing natural geometrical magnification is demonstrated. Both static and dynamic studies are presented.

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Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Free-form Light Actuators &#8212; Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are smart materials capable of reversible shape-change in response to external stimuli, and have attracted researchers&#39; attention in many fields. Most of the studies focused on macroscopic LCE structures (films, fibers) and their miniaturization is still in its infancy. Recently developed lithography techniques, e.g., mask exposure and replica molding, only allow for creating 2D structures on LCE thin films. Direct laser writing (DLW) opens access to truly 3D fabrication in the microscopic scale. However, controlling the actuation topology and dynamics at the same length scale remains a challenge.
In this paper we report on a method to control the liquid crystal (LC) molecular alignment in the LCE microstructures of arbitrary three-dimensional shape. This was made possible by a combination of direct laser writing for both the LCE structures as well as for micrograting patterns inducing local LC alignment. Several types of grating patterns were used to introduce different LC alignments, which can be subsequently patterned into the LCE structures. This protocol allows one to obtain LCE microstructures with engineered alignments able to perform multiple opto-mechanical actuation, thus being capable of multiple functionalities. Applications can be foreseen in the fields of tunable photonics, micro-robotics, lab-on-chip technology and others.

Free-form Light Actuators &amp;#8212; Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Here, we fabricate 3D polymeric micro/nano structures in which both the shape and the molecular alignment can be engineered with nanometer scale accuracy by the use of direct laser writing. Light induced deformation of several types of liquid crystalline elastomer microstructures can be controlled in the microscopic scale.

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are smart materials capable of reversible shape-change in response to external stimuli, and have attracted ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler (SLPS) Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light scattering from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles. This protocol describes the SLSP platform and how it employs a 360&#176; rotational photodetector sensor that is scanned around an IOL sample while recording the intensity and location of scattered light as it passes through the IOL medium. The SLSP platform can be used to predict, non-clinically, the propensity for current and novel IOL designs and materials to induce light scatter. Non-clinical evaluation of light scattering properties of IOLs can significantly reduce the number of patient complaints related to unwanted glare, glistening, optical defects, poor image quality, and other phenomena associated with the unintended light scattering. Future studies should be conducted to correlate SLSP data with clinical results to help identify which measured light scatter is most problematic for patients that have undergone cataract surgery subsequent to IOL implantation.

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler SLPS Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

This protocol describes the scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) that enables the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward scattering of light from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles.

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light ...