The authors would like to acknowledge the CIHR for fellowship support of Steve Deimling and the Department of Paediatrics, University of Western Ontario for support of Steve Deimling, Rami Halabi and Stephanie Grover. This work was supported by the NSERC grant R2654A11 and an NSERC Discovery Accelerator Supplement

1. Embryo Preparation
<ol>
	<li>If not done routinely as part of embryo culture, de-jelly the embryos using 2.5% cysteine, pH 8.0 prior to fixation 8. Although it is not absolutely necessary, it is useful to then manually remove the fertilization envelope prior to fixation using fine forceps.
	<ol>
		<li>Use glass Pasteur pipettes to transfer the embryos. The pipette is not wide enough to transfer embryos so use a diamond pen to cut the glass pipette at a point wide enough to pick up an embryo. Eliminate the...

<ol>
	<li>Ninomiya, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cadherin-dependent+differential+cell+adhesion+in+Xenopus+causes+cell+sorting+in+vitro+but+not+in+the+embryo.">Cadherin-dependent differential cell adhesion in Xenopus causes cell sorting in vitro but not in the embryo.</a> J Cell Sci. 125, 1877-1883 (2012).</li><li>Movassagh, M., Philpott, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+differentiation+in+Xenopus+requires+the+cyclin-dependent+kinase+inhibitor,+p27Xic1.">Cardiac differentiation in Xenopus requires the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p27Xic1.</a> Cardiovasc Res. 79, 436-447 (2008).</li><li>Zhao, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+expression+of+alphaA-+and+betaB1-crystallin+during+normal+development+and+regeneration,+and+proteomic+analysis+for+the+regenerating+lens+in+Xenopus+laevis.">The expression of alphaA- and betaB1-crystallin during normal development and regeneration, and proteomic analysis for the regenerating lens in Xenopus laevis.</a> Mol Vis. 17, 768-778 (2011).</li><li>Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+hybridization:+an+improved+whole-mount+method+for+Xenopus+embryos.">In situ hybridization: an improved whole-mount method for Xenopus embryos.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 36, 685-695 (1991).</li><li>Kirilenko, P., Weierud, F. K., Zorn, A. M., Woodland, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+efficiency+of+Xenopus+primordial+germ+cell+migration+depends+on+the+germplasm+mRNA+encoding+the+PDZ+domain+protein+Grip2.">The efficiency of Xenopus primordial germ cell migration depends on the germplasm mRNA encoding the PDZ domain protein Grip2.</a> Differentiation. 76, 392-403 (2008).</li><li>Deimling, S. J., Drysdale, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fgf+is+required+to+regulate+anterior-posterior+patterning+in+the+Xenopus+lateral+plate+mesoderm.">Fgf is required to regulate anterior-posterior patterning in the Xenopus lateral plate mesoderm.</a> Mech Dev. , (2011).</li><li>Fletcher, R. B., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+FGF+signaling+in+the+establishment+and+maintenance+of+mesodermal+gene+expression+in+Xenopus.">The role of FGF signaling in the establishment and maintenance of mesodermal gene expression in Xenopus.</a> Dev Dyn. 237, 1243-1254 (2008).</li><li>Sive, H. L., Grainger, R. M., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Early development of Xenopus laevis : a laboratory manual. , (2000).</li><li>Park, E. C., Hayata, T., Cho, K. W., Han, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Xenopus+cDNA+microarray+identification+of+genes+with+endodermal+organ+expression.">Xenopus cDNA microarray identification of genes with endodermal organ expression.</a> Dev Dyn. 236, 1633-1649 (2007).</li><li>Horb, M. E., Slack, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endoderm+specification+and+differentiation+in+Xenopus+embryos.">Endoderm specification and differentiation in Xenopus embryos.</a> Dev Biol. 236, 330-343 (2001).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D., Faber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Normal table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin) : a systematical and chronological survey of the development from the fertilized egg till the end of metamorphosis. , (1994).</li><li>Gebhardt, D. O., Nieuwkoop, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Influence+of+Lithium+on+the+Competence+of+the+Ectoderm+in+Ambystoma+Mexicanum.">The Influence of Lithium on the Competence of the Ectoderm in Ambystoma Mexicanum.</a> J Embryol Exp Morphol. 12, 317-331 (1964).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pattern+formation+in+artificially+activated+ectoderm+(Rana+pipiens+and+Ambystoma+punctatum).">Pattern formation in artificially activated ectoderm (Rana pipiens and Ambystoma punctatum).</a> Dev Biol. 6, 255-279 (1963).</li><li>Sato, S. M., Sargent, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+approach+to+dorsoanterior+development+in+Xenopus+laevis.">Molecular approach to dorsoanterior development in Xenopus laevis.</a> Dev Biol. 137, 135-141 (1990).</li><li>Smith, S. J., Kotecha, S., Towers, N., Latinkic, B. V., Mohun, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XPOX2-peroxidase+expression+and+the+XLURP-1+promoter+reveal+the+site+of+embryonic+myeloid+cell+development+in+Xenopus.">XPOX2-peroxidase expression and the XLURP-1 promoter reveal the site of embryonic myeloid cell development in Xenopus.</a> Mech Dev. 117, 173-186 (2002).</li><li>Drysdale, T. A., Tonissen, K. F., Patterson, K. D., Crawford, M. J., Krieg, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+troponin+I+is+a+heart-specific+marker+in+the+Xenopus+embryo:+expression+during+abnormal+heart+morphogenesis.">Cardiac troponin I is a heart-specific marker in the Xenopus embryo: expression during abnormal heart morphogenesis.</a> Dev Biol. 165, 432-441 (1994).</li><li>Carroll, T., Wallingford, J., Seufert, D., Vize, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+regulation+of+pronephric+development.">Molecular regulation of pronephric development.</a> Curr Top Dev Biol. 44, 67-100 (1999).</li><li>Tonissen, K. F., Drysdale, T. A., Lints, T. J., Harvey, R. P., Krieg, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XNkx-2.5,+a+Xenopus+gene+related+to+Nkx-2.5+and+tinman:+evidence+for+a+conserved+role+in+cardiac+development.">XNkx-2.5, a Xenopus gene related to Nkx-2.5 and tinman: evidence for a conserved role in cardiac development.</a> Dev Biol. 162, 325-328 (1994).</li><li>Davidson, L. A., Ezin, A. M., Keller, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embryonic+wound+healing+by+apical+contraction+and+ingression+in+Xenopus+laevis.">Embryonic wound healing by apical contraction and ingression in Xenopus laevis.</a> Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 53, 163-176 (2002).</li><li>Hurtado, R., Mikawa, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+sensitivity+and+stability+in+two-color+in+situ+hybridization+by+means+of+a+novel+chromagenic+substrate+combination.">Enhanced sensitivity and stability in two-color in situ hybridization by means of a novel chromagenic substrate combination.</a> Dev Dyn. 235, 2811-2816 (2006).</li></ol>

The ability to use in situ hybridization to visualize the expression pattern of specific genes remains the most commonly used method to identify specific organs or cell types in the Xenopus embryo. This is because of several advantages offered by this technique. The expression of a gene can identify specific structures well before any histological sign of differentiation such as the case for nkx2.5 expression in the heart progenitors prior to any clear demarcation of those cells 18. ...

The expression pattern of a specific gene is an important piece of information in determining the potential role for that gene in the development of a specific organ or cell type. Simply put, if it is not expressed at the right time and place it is unlikely to play a key role. In Xenopus, as in most early embryos, the most commonly used assay for detecting the expression of a gene is whole mount in situ hybridization using labeled antisense RNA probes. The use of antibody staining to assess expression of a gene in Xenopus is becoming more common as researchers discover antibodies, usually raised against mammalian proteins, that cross react to the Xenopus homologue or generate their own 1-3. However, the vast majority of studies on Xenopus organogenesis still utilize antisense RNA probes. When antibodies are used, each individual antibody often requires optimization for the primary antibody concentration or fixation protocols. In contrast, the protocol for in situ hybridizations is essentially invariant for different probes. The basic concept is relatively simple and an excellent standard protocol has been well established 4. Our protocol is a streamlined version of the original protocol 4 that still provides excellent detection of gene expression patterns in the early embryo. The embryos are fixed and then prepared for hybridization by changing solutions and temperatures such that it allows for high stringency binding of the labeled antisense RNA probe to its target mRNA. The unbound probe is washed away and the embryos are then prepared for binding of an antibody against the label on the RNA probes. Excess antibody is then washed away and an enzymatic color reaction is used to localize where the RNA probe is bound in the embryo. There are now a number of Xenopus transgenic lines that drive expression of fluorescent proteins in specific tissues and these are available at the Xenopus stock centers such as the National Xenopus Resource in Woods Hole. While very useful for many experiments that require examining organogenesis in living embryos, this option requires separate housing for the transgenic lines. 
In situ hybridization can clearly delineate where specific organs or cell types will form in the early embryo (Figure 1). The technique is remarkably sensitive given that one can detect gene expression in a small number of cells in a single embryo 5. However, in situ hybridization using the intensity of colorimetric staining is not considered quantifiable because the color reaction is not a linear one. Despite difficulty in quantifying staining intensity, changes in expression are often quite noticeable; particularly when the in situ hybridization shows quantifiable increases or decreases in the size of expression domains 6,7. 
The clear advantages of whole mount in situ hybridization make it a critical assay in the study of early development. However, it is a time consuming one that requires many steps over several days. This protocol is a simplified version of the standard protocol that eliminates several steps without reducing the quality of the in situ result. The simplification also eliminates sources of variability, making trouble shooting easier if an in situ hybridization is not optimal. Specifically, we have eliminated the use of proteinase K and RNAse treatments of the embryo, two steps that can depend on reagent quality and can also reduce signal intensity if overdone. The protocol also provides some degree of cost saving due to eliminating the use of several reagents. Finally, this protocol also provides some simple guidelines for improved capturing of images of in situ hybridization results. Although this protocol is optimized for work in Xenopus embryos, it is likely that at least some of the simplifications will be applicable to in situ hybridization work in other embryo systems.

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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:304px;">Name of the reagent or equipment</td>
			<td style="width:107px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Catalogue number</td>
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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">Labguake Tube Shakers</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>17-08-2011</td>
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			<td height="36" style="height:36px;">VWR Vials</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10-07-2012</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">L-Cysteine</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>CYS342.500</td>
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			<td height="31" style="height:31px;">Ribonucleoside Triphosphate Set, 100mM</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11277057001</td>
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			<td>Roche</td>
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			<td>Invitrogen&#160;</td>
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			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>EPO111</td>
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			<td height="33" style="height:33px;">T3 RNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>EPO101</td>
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			<td height="29" style="height:29px;">SP6 RNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>EPO131</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Dnase 1</td>
			<td>Invitrogen&#160;</td>
			<td>18047-019</td>
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			<td height="33" style="height:33px;">Sheep Serum</td>
			<td>&#160;Wisent</td>
			<td>31150</td>
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			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11096176001</td>
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			<td height="38" style="height:38px;">BM purple Ap Substrate</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11442094001</td>
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			<td height="31" style="height:31px;">Anti-Digoxigenin-Ap Feb fragments</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11093274910</td>
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			<td height="29" style="height:29px;">Methanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>CAMX0485-7</td>
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			<td height="29" style="height:29px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>SOD002.10</td>
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			<td>EM&#160;</td>
			<td>7910</td>
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			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>EDT001.500</td>
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			<td height="30" style="height:30px;">Tris</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>TRS003.5</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Tween-20</td>
			<td>EM&#160;</td>
			<td>9480</td>
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			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M-2643</td>
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			<td height="29" style="height:29px;">Mops</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>MOP001.250</td>
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			<td height="30" style="height:30px;">EGTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E-3889-25G</td>
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			<td height="30" style="height:30px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>PAR070.500&#160;</td>
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			<td>&#160;VWR&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>CAFX0420-4&#160;</td>
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			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10109223001</td>
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			<td>&#160;VWR&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>CAMX0100-3</td>
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			<td height="30" style="height:30px;">tri-Sodium Citrate</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>CIT001</td>
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			<td>EM&#160;</td>
			<td>HX0635-2</td>
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			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>ALB001.100</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">PVP-40</td>
			<td>ICN</td>
			<td>195451</td>
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			<td height="31" style="height:31px;">Ficoll 400</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-0300-10</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Benzyl Alcohol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B-1042</td>
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			<td height="34" style="height:34px;">Benzyl Benzoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B-6630</td>
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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">UltraPure Agarose&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen&#160;</td>
			<td>16500-500</td>
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understanding early organogenesis using a simplified in situ hybridization protocol in xenopus

Organogenesis is the study of how organs are specified and then acquire their specific shape and functions during development. The Xenopuslaevis embryo is very useful for studying organogenesis because their large size makes them very suitable for identifying organs at the earliest steps in organogenesis. At this time, the primary method used for identifying a specific organ or primordium is whole mount in situ hybridization with labeled antisense RNA probes specific to a gene that is expressed in the organ of interest. In addition, it is relatively easy to manipulate genes or signaling pathways in Xenopus and in situ hybridization allows one to then assay for changes in the presence or morphology of a target organ. Whole mount in situ hybridization is a multi-day protocol with many steps involved. Here we provide a simplified protocol with reduced numbers of steps and reagents used that works well for routine assays. In situ hybridization robots have greatly facilitated the process and we detail how and when we utilize that technology in the process. Once an in situ hybridization is complete, capturing the best image of the result can be frustrating. We provide advice on how to optimize imaging of in situ hybridization results. Although the protocol describes assessing organogenesis in Xenopus laevis, the same basic protocol can almost certainly be adapted to Xenopus tropicalis and other model systems.

The use of tissue specific probes can provide outstanding information in regards to the state of development for specific organs. In the following examples, the stage of the embryo is based on the Nieuwkoop and Faber staging table 11. If one uses probes form genes expressed after differentiation, cardiac troponin I at stage 28-30, for example (Figure 1C), the presence or size of a differentiated organ can be assessed at any stage post differentiation. Years ago, embryologists were abl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus at JoVE.com

Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus

The Xenopus laevis embryo continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of early development due to its large size and ease of manipulation. A simplified protocol for whole mount in situ hybridization protocol is provided that can be used in the identification of specific organs in this model system.

Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus

Organogenesis is the study of how organs are specified and then acquire their specific shape and functions during development.  The Xenopuslaevis embryo ...

understanding-early-organogenesis-using-simplified-situ-hybridization

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

38.9K vues.  Hospital for Sick Children. The Xenopus laevis embryo continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of early development due to its large size and ease of manipulation. A simplified protocol for whole mount in situ hybridization protocol is provided that can be used in the identification of specific organs in this model system.

Vidéo: Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus

The Xenopus laevis embryo continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of early development due to its large size and ease of manipulation.   A simplified protocol for whole mount in situ hybridization protocol is provided that can be used in the identification of specific organs in this model...

fluorescence in situ hybridization (fish) protocol in human sperm

Fluorescence in situ hybridization FISH Protocol in Human Sperm

This video-article describes, step by step, how to process a semen sample to achieve good-quality fluorescence in situ hybridization on human spermatozoa. Preparations obtained can be used for aneuploidy screening in the context of clinical diagnosis.<br...

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) Protocol in Human Sperm

double whole mount in situ hybridization of early chick embryos

Double Whole Mount in situ Hybridization of Early Chick Embryos

This video demonstrates 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of 2 different genes can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by David Wilkinson, Domingos Henrique, Phil Ingham and David Ish...

fluorescent calcium imaging and subsequent in situ hybridization for neuronal precursor characterization in xenopus laevis

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

We present a two-part protocol that combines fluorescent calcium imaging with in situ hybridization, allowing the experimenter to correlate patterns of calcium activity with gene expression profiles on a single-cell...

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

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Here, we describe a protocol for detection and localization of Drosophila embryo protein and RNA from collection to pre-embedding and embedding, immunostaining, and mRNA in situ...

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non-radioactive in situ hybridization protocol applicable for norway spruce and a range of plant species

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

We describe a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including Norway spruce. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, the protocol may be used in studies of different tissues and...

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visualizing multiciliated cells in the zebrafish through a combined protocol of whole mount fluorescent in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence

Visualizing Multiciliated Cells in the Zebrafish Through a Combined Protocol of Whole Mount Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization and Immunofluorescence

Cilia development is vital to proper organogenesis. This protocol describes an optimized method to label and visualize ciliated cells of the...

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wholemount in situ hybridization for astyanax embryos

Wholemount In Situ Hybridization for Astyanax Embryos

This protocol enables visualization of gene expression in embryonic Astyanax cavefish. This approach has been developed with the goal of maximizing gene expression signal, while minimizing non-specific background staining.

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in situ protocol for butterfly pupal wings using riboprobes

In situ Protocol for Butterfly Pupal Wings Using Riboprobes

In order to examine gene expression in the pupal wing tissue of Bicyclus anynana, we present an optimized protocol for in situ hybridizations using riboprobes.  We also provide guidelines for the further optimization of this protocol for use in pupal wings of other Lepidopteran...

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Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule...

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using whole mount in situ hybridization to link molecular and organismal biology

Using Whole Mount in situ Hybridization to Link Molecular and Organismal Biology

Whole mount in situ hybridization (WISH) was used in an upper level undergraduate Comparative Vertebrate Biology course in addition to vertebrate dissections. This gave students the opportunity to study gene expression patterns as well as gross anatomy, linking the study of molecular and organismal biology within one...

Using Whole Mount in situ Hybridization to Link Molecular and Organismal Biology

tissue-specific mirna expression profiling in mouse heart sections using in situ hybridization

Tissue-specific miRNA Expression Profiling in Mouse Heart Sections Using In Situ Hybridization

micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are short and highly homologous RNA sequences, serving as post-transcriptional regulators of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Current miRNA detection methods vary in sensitivity and specificity. We describe a protocol that combines in situ hybridization and immunostaining for concurrent detection of miRNA and protein molecules on mouse heart tissue...

Tissue-specific miRNA Expression Profiling in Mouse Heart Sections Using In Situ Hybridization

high-throughput physical mapping of chromosomes using automated in situ hybridization

High-throughput Physical Mapping of Chromosomes using Automated in situ Hybridization

Genome assemblies based on massively parallel DNA sequencing technologies are usually highly fragmented. The development of physical chromosome maps can potentially improve genome assemblies. Here, we demonstrate innovative approaches to chromosome preparation, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and imaging that significantly increase throughput of the physical map...

High-throughput Physical Mapping of Chromosomes using Automated in situ Hybridization

detection of axonally localized mrnas in brain sections using high-resolution in situ hybridization

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) enables the visualization of RNAs in cells and tissues. Here we show how combination of RNAscope ISH with immunohistochemistry or histological dyes can be successfully used to detect mRNAs localized to axons in sections of mouse and human...

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

complete spinal cord injury and brain dissection protocol for subsequent wholemount in situ hybridization in larval sea lamprey

Complete Spinal Cord Injury and Brain Dissection Protocol for Subsequent Wholemount In Situ Hybridization in Larval Sea Lamprey

Lampreys recover locomotion after a complete spinal cord injury. However, some spinal-projecting neurons are good regenerators and others are not. This paper illustrates the techniques for housing sea lamprey larvae (and recently transformed adults), producing complete spinal cord transections and preparing wholemount brains and spinal cords for in situ...

Complete Spinal Cord Injury and Brain Dissection Protocol for Subsequent Wholemount In Situ Hybridization in Larval Sea Lamprey

high resolution fluorescent in situ hybridization in drosophila embryos and tissues using tyramide signal amplification

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

The described RNA in situ hybridization protocol allows the detection of RNA in whole Drosophila embryos or dissected tissues. Using 96-well microtiter plates and tyramide signal amplification, transcripts can be detected at high resolution, sensitivity, and throughput, and at a relatively low...

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

double fluorescence in situ hybridization in fresh brain sections

Double Fluorescence in situ Hybridization in Fresh Brain Sections

This protocol involves a non-radioactive in-situ hybridization procedure that enables the simultaneous identification of two transcript species, at a single cell resolution, in thin sections of the vertebrate...

Double Fluorescence in situ Hybridization in Fresh Brain Sections

visualization of microbiota in tick guts by whole-mount in situ hybridization

Visualization of Microbiota in Tick Guts by Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization

Here, we present a protocol to spatially and temporally assess the presence of viable microbiota in tick guts using a modified whole-mount in situ hybridization...

Visualization of Microbiota in Tick Guts by Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization

visualization of sars-cov-2 using immuno rna-fluorescence in situ hybridization

Visualization of SARS-CoV-2 using Immuno RNA-Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization

Here, we describe a simple method that combines RNA fluorescence in situ&#160;hybridization (RNA-FISH) with immunofluorescence to visualize severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA. This protocol may increase understanding of the molecular characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 RNA-host interactions at a single-cell...

combining lipophilic dye, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Stem cell-like Xenopus Embryonic Explants to Study Early Neural Developmental Features In Vitro and In Vivo

Understanding the genetic programs underlying neural development is an important goal of developmental and stem cell biology. In the amphibian blastula, cells from the roof of the blastocoel are pluripotent. These cells can be isolated, and programmed to generate various tissues through manipulation of genes expression or induction by morphogens. In this manuscript protocols are described for the use of Xenopus laevis blastocoel roof explants as an assay system to investigate key in vivo and in vitro features of early neural development. These protocols allow the investigation of fate acquisition, cell migration behaviors, and cell autonomous and non-autonomous properties. The blastocoel roof explants can be cultured in a serum-free defined medium and grafted into host embryos. This transplantation into an embryo allows the investigation of the long-term lineage commitment, the inductive properties, and the behavior of transplanted cells in vivo. These assays can be exploited to investigate molecular mechanisms, cellular processes and gene regulatory networks underlying neural development. In the context of regenerative medicine, these assays provide a means to generate neural-derived cell types in vitro that could be used in drug screening.

Stem cell-like Xenopus Embryonic Explants to Study Early Neural Developmental Features In Vitro and In Vivo

In Xenopus embryos, cells from the roof of the blastocoel are pluripotent and can be programmed to generate various tissues. Here, we describe protocols to use amphibian blastocoel roof explants as an assay system to investigate key in vivo and in vitro features of early neural development.

Understanding the genetic programs underlying neural development is an important goal of developmental and stem cell biology. In the amphibian blastula, ...

Functional Cloning Using a Xenopus Oocyte Expression System

Identification of genes responsible for embryonic induction poses a number of challenges; to name a few, secreted molecules of interest may be low in abundance, may not be secreted but tethered to the signaling cell(s), or may require the presence of binding partners or upstream regulatory molecules. Thus in a search for gene products capable of eliciting an early lens-inductive response in competent ectoderm, we utilized an expression cloning system that would allow identification of paracrine or juxtacrine factors as well as transcriptional or other regulatory proteins. Pools of mRNA were injected into Xenopus oocytes, and responding tissue placed directly on the oocytes and co-cultured. Following functional cloning of ldb1 from a neural plate stage cDNA library based on its ability to elicit the expression of the early lens placode marker foxe3 in lens-competent animal cap ectoderm, we characterized the mRNA expression pattern, and assayed developmental progression following overexpression or knockdown of ldb1. This system is suitable in a very wide variety of contexts where identification of an inducer or its upstream regulatory molecules is sought using a functional response in competent tissue.

Functional Cloning Using a Xenopus Oocyte Expression System

We describe a Xenopus oocyte and animal cap system for the expression cloning of genes capable of inducing a response in competent ectoderm, and discuss techniques for the subsequent analysis of such genes. This system is useful in the functional identification of a wide range of gene products.

Identification of genes responsible for embryonic induction poses a number of challenges; to name a few, secreted molecules of interest may be low in ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Multi-target Chromogenic Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization for Comparing Gene Expression Domains in Drosophila Embryos

To analyze gene regulatory networks active during embryonic development and organogenesis it is essential to precisely define how the different genes are expressed in spatial relation to each other in situ. Multi-target chromogenic whole-mount in situ hybridization (MC-WISH) greatly facilitates the instant comparison of gene expression patterns, as it allows distinctive visualization of different mRNA species in contrasting colors in the same sample specimen. This provides the possibility to relate gene expression domains topographically to each other with high accuracy and to define unique and overlapping expression sites. In the presented protocol, we describe a MC-WISH procedure for comparing mRNA expression patterns of different genes in Drosophila embryos. Up to three RNA probes, each specific for another gene and labeled by a different hapten, are simultaneously hybridized to the embryo samples and subsequently detected by alkaline phosphatase-based colorimetric immunohistochemistry. The described procedure is detailed here for Drosophila, but works equally well with zebrafish embryos.

Multi-target Chromogenic Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization for Comparing Gene Expression Domains in Drosophila Embryos

We describe a multi-target chromogenic whole-mount in situ hybridization (MC-WISH) procedure in intact Drosophila embryos allowing simultaneous and specific detection of three different mRNA distribution patterns by contrasting color precipitates.

To analyze gene regulatory networks active during embryonic development and organogenesis it is essential to precisely define how the different genes are ...

In recent years, the zebrafish embryo has emerged as a popular model to study developmental biology due to traits such as ex utero embryo development and optical transparency. In particular, the zebrafish embryo has become an important organism to study vertebrate kidney organogenesis as well as multiciliated cell (MCC) development. To visualize MCCs in the embryonic zebrafish kidney, we have developed a combined protocol of whole-mount fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and whole mount immunofluorescence (IF) that enables high resolution imaging. This manuscript describes our technique for co-localizing RNA transcripts and protein as a tool to better understand the regulation of developmental programs through the expression of various lineage factors.

Cilia development is vital to proper organogenesis. This protocol describes an optimized method to label and visualize ciliated cells of the zebrafish.

In recent years, the zebrafish embryo has emerged as a popular model to study developmental biology due to traits such as ex utero embryo development and ...

Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) to Monitor the State of Arm Cohesion in Prometaphase and Metaphase I Drosophila Oocytes

In humans, chromosome segregation errors in oocytes are responsible for the majority of miscarriages and birth defects. Moreover, as women age, their risk of conceiving an aneuploid fetus increases dramatically and this phenomenon is known as the maternal age effect. One requirement for accurate chromosome segregation during the meiotic divisions is maintenance of sister chromatid cohesion during the extended prophase period that oocytes experience. Cytological evidence in both humans and model organisms suggests that meiotic cohesion deteriorates during the aging process. In addition, segregation errors in human oocytes are most prevalent during meiosis I, consistent with premature loss of arm cohesion. The use of model organisms is critical for unraveling the mechanisms that underlie age-dependent loss of cohesion. Drosophila melanogaster offers several advantages for studying the regulation of meiotic cohesion in oocytes. However, until recently, only genetic tests were available to assay for loss of arm cohesion in oocytes of different genotypes or under different experimental conditions. Here, a detailed protocol is provided for using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to directly visualize defects in arm cohesion in prometaphase I and metaphase I arrested Drosophila oocytes. By generating a FISH probe that hybridizes to the distal arm of the X chromosome and collecting confocal Z stacks, a researcher can visualize the number of individual FISH signals in three dimensions and determine whether sister chromatid arms are separated. The procedure outlined makes it possible to quantify arm cohesion defects in hundreds of Drosophila oocytes. As such, this method provides an important tool for investigating the mechanisms that contribute to cohesion maintenance as well as the factors that lead to its demise during the aging process.

Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization FISH to Monitor the State of Arm Cohesion in Prometaphase and Metaphase I Drosophila Oocytes

This manuscript presents a detailed method for generating X-chromosome arm probes and performing fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to examine the state of sister chromatid cohesion in prometaphase and metaphase I arrested Drosophila oocytes. This protocol is suitable for determining whether meiotic arm cohesion is intact or disrupted in different genotypes.

In humans, chromosome segregation errors in oocytes are responsible for the majority of miscarriages and birth defects. Moreover, as women age, their risk ...

Two-step Approach to Explore Early- and Late-stages of Organ Formation in the Avian Model: The Thymus and Parathyroid Glands Organogenesis Paradigm

The avian embryo, as an experimental model, has been of utmost importance for seminal discoveries in developmental biology. Among several approaches, the formation of quail-chicken chimeras and the use of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) to sustain the development of ectopic tissues date back to the last century. Nowadays, the combination of these classical techniques with recent in vitro methodologies offers novel prospects to further explore organ formation.
Here we describe a two-step approach to study early- and late-stages of organogenesis. Briefly, the embryonic region containing the presumptive territory of the organ is isolated from quail embryos and grown in vitro in an organotypic system (up to 48 h). Cultured tissues are subsequently grafted onto the CAM of a chicken embryo. After 10 days of in ovo development, fully formed organs are obtained from grafted tissues. This method also allows the modulation of signaling pathways by the regular administration of pharmacological agents and tissue genetic manipulation throughout in vitro and in ovo developmental steps. Additionally, developing tissues can be collected at any time-window to analyze their gene-expression profile (using quantitative PCR (qPCR), microarrays, etc.) and morphology (assessed with conventional histology and immunochemistry).
The described experimental procedure can be used as a tool to follow organ formation outside the avian embryo, from the early stages of organogenesis to fully formed and functional organs.

This article provides an updated approach to the classical quail-chicken chimera system to study organ formation, by combining novel in vitro and in ovo experimental procedures.

The avian embryo, as an experimental model, has been of utmost importance for seminal discoveries in developmental biology. Among several approaches, the ...

In recent years, a draft genome for the blind Mexican cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus) has been released, revealing the sequence identities for thousands of genes. Prior research into this emerging model system capitalized on comprehensive genome-wide investigations that have identified numerous quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with various cave-associated phenotypes. However, the ability to connect genes of interest to the heritable basis for phenotypic change remains a significant challenge. One technique that can facilitate deeper understanding of the role of development in troglomorphic evolution is whole-mount in situ hybridization. This technique can be implemented to directly compare gene expression between cave- and surface-dwelling forms, nominate candidate genes underlying established QTL, identify genes of interest from next-generation sequencing studies, or develop other discovery-based approaches. In this report, we present a simple protocol, supported by a flexible checklist, that can be widely adapted for use well beyond the presented study system. It is hoped that this protocol can serve as a broad resource for the Astyanax community and beyond.

This protocol enables visualization of gene expression in embryonic Astyanax cavefish. This approach has been developed with the goal of maximizing gene expression signal, while minimizing non-specific background staining.

In recent years, a draft genome for the blind Mexican cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus) has been released, revealing the sequence identities for thousands of ...

Genotyping and Quantification of In Situ Hybridization Staining in Zebrafish

In situ hybridization (ISH) is an important technique that enables researchers to study mRNA distribution in situ and has been a critical technique in developmental biology for decades. Traditionally, most gene expression studies relied on visual evaluation of the ISH signal, a method that is prone to bias, particularly in cases where sample identities are known a priori. We have previously reported on a method to circumvent this bias and provide a more accurate quantification of ISH signals. Here, we present a simple guide to apply this method to quantify the expression levels of genes of interest in ISH-stained embryos and correlate that with their corresponding genotypes. The method is particularly useful to quantify spatially restricted gene expression signals in samples of mixed genotypes and it provides an unbiased and accurate alternative to the traditional visual scoring methods.

Gene editing technologies have enabled researchers to generate zebrafish mutants to investigate gene function with relative ease. Here, we provide a guide to perform parallel embryo genotyping and quantification of in situ hybridization signals in zebrafish. This unbiased approach provides greater accuracy in phenotypical analyses based on in situ hybridization.

In situ hybridization (ISH) is an important technique that enables researchers to study mRNA distribution in situ and has been a critical technique in ...

Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization in Zebrafish Embryos and Tube Formation Assay in iPSC-ECs to Study the Role of Endoglin in Vascular Development

Vascular development is determined by the sequential expression of specific genes, which can be studied by performing in situ hybridization assays in zebrafish during different developmental stages. To investigate the role of endoglin(eng) in vessel formation during the development of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia&#160;(HHT), morpholino-mediated targeted knockdown of eng in zebrafish are used to study its temporal expression and associated functions. Here, whole-mount in situ RNA hybridization (WISH) is employed for the analysis of eng and its downstream genes in zebrafish embryos. Also, tube formation assays are performed in HHT patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell-differentiated&#160;endothelial cells (iPSC-ECs; with eng mutations). A specific signal amplifying system using the whole amount In Situ Hybridization &#8211; WISH provides higher resolution and lower background results compared to traditional methods. To obtain a better signal, the post-fixation time is adjusted to 30 min after probe hybridization. Because fluorescence staining is not sensitive in zebrafish embryos, it is replaced with diaminobezidine (DAB) staining here. In this protocol, HHT&#160;patient-derived iPSC lines containing an eng mutation are differentiated into endothelial cells. After coating a plate with basement membrane matrix for 30 min at 37 &#176;C, iPSC-ECs are seeded as a monolayer into wells and kept at 37 &#176;C for 3 h. Then, the tube length and number of branches are calculated using microscopic images. Thus, with this improved WISH protocol, it is shown that reduced eng expression affects endothelial progenitor formation in zebrafish embryos. This is further confirmed by tube formation assays using iPSC-ECs derived from a patient with HHT. These assays confirm the role for eng in early vascular development.

Presented here is a protocol for whole-mount in situ RNA hybridization analysis in zebrafish and tube formation assay in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells to study the role of endoglin in vascular formation.

Vascular development is determined by the sequential expression of specific genes, which can be studied by performing in situ hybridization assays in ...