This work was supported by R01 NS067417 from the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke (MPB).

These studies were performed in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes Health. The protocol was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Georgetown University. Mice were housed in a temperature controlled animal facility and were kept on a 12 h light/12 h dark cycle. Food and water were available ad libitum.
1. Preparation of the mTBI Apparatus
NOTE: T...

<ol>
	<li>McMahon, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Symptomatology+and+functional+outcome+in+mild+traumatic+brain+injury:+results+from+the+prospective+TRACK-TBI+study.">Symptomatology and functional outcome in mild traumatic brain injury: results from the prospective TRACK-TBI study.</a> J Neurotrauma. 31 (1), 26-33 (2014).</li><li>Barkhoudarian, G., Hovda, D. A., Giza, C. 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R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diagnosis,+prognosis,+and+clinical+management+of+mild+traumatic+brain+injury.">Diagnosis, prognosis, and clinical management of mild traumatic brain injury.</a> Lancet Neurol. 14 (5), 506-517 (2015).</li><li>McCrory, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consensus+statement+on+concussion+in+sport:+the+4th+International+Conference+on+Concussion+in+Sport,+Zurich,+November+2012.">Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 4th International Conference on Concussion in Sport, Zurich, November 2012.</a> J Athl Train. 48 (4), 554-575 (2012).</li><li>Talavage, T. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functionally-detected+cognitive+impairment+in+high+school+football+players+without+clinically-diagnosed+concussion.">Functionally-detected cognitive impairment in high school football players without clinically-diagnosed concussion.</a> J Neurotrauma. 31 (4), 327-338 (2014).</li><li>Angoa-Perez, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+of+sports-related+head+injury:+bridging+the+gap+between+pre-clinical+research+and+clinical+reality.">Animal models of sports-related head injury: bridging the gap between pre-clinical research and clinical reality.</a> J Neurochem. 129 (6), 916-931 (2014).</li><li>Creed, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concussive+brain+trauma+in+the+mouse+results+in+acute+cognitive+deficits+and+sustained+impairment+of+axonal+function.">Concussive brain trauma in the mouse results in acute cognitive deficits and sustained impairment of axonal function.</a> J Neurotrauma. 28 (4), 547-563 (2011).</li><li>Hamberger, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concussion+in+professional+football:+morphology+of+brain+injuries+in+the+NFL+concussion+model--part+16.">Concussion in professional football: morphology of brain injuries in the NFL concussion model--part 16.</a> Neurosurgery. 64 (6), 1174-1182 (2009).</li><li>Kane, M. 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P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+concussive-like+brain+injury+model+in+mice+(II):+selective+neuronal+loss+in+the+cortex+and+hippocampus.">A concussive-like brain injury model in mice (II): selective neuronal loss in the cortex and hippocampus.</a> J Neurotrauma. 14 (11), 863-873 (1997).</li><li>Winston, C. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+Spine+Loss+and+Chronic+White+Matter+Inflammation+in+a+Mouse+Model+of+Highly+Repetitive+Head+Trauma.">Dendritic Spine Loss and Chronic White Matter Inflammation in a Mouse Model of Highly Repetitive Head Trauma.</a> Am J Pathol. 186 (3), 552-567 (2016).</li><li>Johnson, V. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammation+and+white+matter+degeneration+persist+for+years+after+a+single+traumatic+brain+injury.">Inflammation and white matter degeneration persist for years after a single traumatic brain injury.</a> Brain. 136, 28-42 (2013).</li><li>Barrio, J. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+characterization+of+chronic+traumatic+encephalopathy+using+[F-18]FDDNP+PET+brain+imaging.">In vivo characterization of chronic traumatic encephalopathy using [F-18]FDDNP PET brain imaging.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 112 (16), 2039-2047 (2015).</li></ol>

In humans, mTBI is characterized by a functional impairment in the absence of structural injury. This can occur with, or without, a loss of consciousness1. Exposure to repeat concussions is currently thought to underlie the development and/or progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as CTE4. It is well documented that CTE is commonly found in boxers and football players and although exposure to repeat concussions (including those that do not result in a loss of consci...

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is defined as a head injury sustained from an external physical force, resulting in the disruption of normal brain function. It represents a significant socio-economic and public health burden, with the Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2015 Report to Congress estimating that 2.5 million Americans sustain a TBI every year. This impacts not only the patient&#39;s quality of life, but also places an extremely high economic cost on the community, currently estimated at $76.5 billion annually. The amount of actual brain damage conveyed and the acute phase symptomologies is what defines mild, moderate and severe TBI.
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI), also referred to as concussion, accounts for over 70% of TBIs reported each year1. It is most common among athletes who participate in high-risk contact sports including boxing and football2. Unlike moderate or severe forms of TBI, the immediate damage and symptoms associated with mTBI are sometimes not as pronounced3. By contrast, the long-term effects of mTBI can be just as debilitating as those seen in the moderate and severe forms. Those who suffer from repetitive mTBI have been shown to develop chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), as well as other cognitive and degenerative illnesses4. Therefore, it is important to gain a greater understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to the short-term symptoms and overall long-term damage that arises following mTBI.
In humans, the definition of concussion as defined by the Fourth International Conference on Concussion in Sport (Zurich 2012)5 states that the level of injury for sports concussion is mild, does not cause gross pathological changes, but does cause short-term neurological deficits that are spontaneously resolved. Indeed, a recent study investigated the effect of mTBI on cognitive impairment in high school football players, using head impact telemetry systems. This study showed the amount of times players sustained helmet impacts &#62;20 g in a single season ranged from a low of 226 (average, 4.7 per session) to a high of 1855 (average, 38.6 per session)6. Most of these impacts did not result in the clinical diagnosis of a concussion; but evidence of functional changes in brain function could be observed using fMRI6. The brain changes that cause these functional changes are unknown, and therefore there is a pressing need to have a reliable and reproducible model to facilitate research into the effects of concussive and subconcussive mTBI.
Despite previous attempts to model mTBI in mice and rats7, many report adverse effects. In particular, most rodent models are limited in their repetitive nature using fewer than five mTBIs impacts, as well as having adverse pathological events including intracerebral bleeding, skull fractures, severe axonal injury, neuronal cell death, and increased mortality8,9,10,11,12. Herein, we describe a mouse model of mTBI that is closer to the true definition of concussion in humans. This model recapitulates many of the symptoms observed in human mTBI, such as the mechanical force that results in the transient loss of consciousness with no overt gross brain pathology. Furthermore, it is advantageous in the fact that it can be utilised for both single impact and repetitive impact paradigms over long time periods as reported previously13.

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a mouse model of single and repetitive mild traumatic brain injury

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal neurological deficits and even amnesia. Athletes participating in contact sports are at high risk of exposure to large number of mTBIs. In terms of the level of injury in a sporting athlete, a mTBI is defined as a mild injury that does not cause gross pathological changes, but does cause short-term neurological deficits that are spontaneously resolved. Despite previous attempts to model mTBI in mice and rats, many have reported gross adverse effects including skull fractures, intracerebral bleeding, axonal injury and neuronal cell death. Herein, we describe our highly reproducible animal model of mTBI that reproduces clinically relevant symptoms. This model uses a custom made pneumatic impactor device to deliver a closed-head trauma. This impact is made under precise velocity and deformation parameters, creating a reliable and reproducible model to examine the mechanisms that contribute to effects of single or repetitive concussive mTBI.

The use of this novel mTBI device allows for single and repetitive mild head injuries without risk of skull fracture or structural brain damage. The model uses a custom made pneumatic Teflon impactor device to deliver a closed head mechanical energy impact. The impact is made under precise velocity and deformation parameters, creating a reliable and reproducible model to examine the mechanisms that contribute to effects of single or repetitive concussive mTBI (Figure ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Mouse Model of Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury at JoVE.com

A Mouse Model of Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Athletes absorb several hundred mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI)/concussions every year; however, the consequence of these on the brain is poorly understood. Therefore, an animal model of single and repetitive mTBI that consistently replicates clinically relevant symptoms provides the means to advance the study of mTBI and concussion.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal ...

The overall goal of this mouse model of traumatic brain injury or TBI, is to create a reliable and reproducible method for examining the mechanisms that underlie concussive and sub-concussive brain injury. This method facilitates the investigation of key questions in the mouse TBI field such as, what are the physiological changes that occur in the brain after single or repeat concussion. The main advantage of this technique is that the injury device is specifically designed to allow repetitive head impacts without the risk of skull fracture or structural brain damage.Before beginning the procedure, turn on the compressed air and initialize the high velocity pneumatic impactor to a pressure setting of 861.85 kilo pascals. Calibrate the machine to the desired velocity and dwell time. Place the gel filled base, such that the mid line is perpendicular to the trajectory of the impactor tip and record the weights of all of the mice to be used.Next, transfer and anesthetize the mouse to the MTBI apparatus, placing the head on the gel pad with the skull perpendicular to the impactor tip and tape over the mouse head, to create a flat surface and to ensure the ears are away from the impact site. Lower the polytetrafluoroethylene impactor tip to align with the sagittal mid line in the center of the head, just behind the eyes. The impator tip is 10 millimeters in diameter and will cover the majority of the head area.Adjust the impactor until it is just touching the surface of the mouse's head. Then, retract the tip and manually dial down the required deflection depth to 7.5 millimeters. Now, arm the data acquisition control system and to press the trigger button to impact the mouse's head.Immediately after the final impact, transfer the mouse to the bench top in the supine position, without the nose cone and use a stopwatch to measure the latency of the return of righting reflex to determine the loss of consciousness time and the time to return, of spontaneous ambulation. Upon recovery to normal behavior, return the animal to its home cage. The return of the righting reflex time, is an acute neurological evaluation of injury severity that can be used to quantify the loss of consciousness after MTBI.For example, animals that receive a single MTBI, demonstrate significantly increased loss of consciousness and ambulation times, compared to sham animals. In repeat injury paradigms, loss of consciousness and ambulation times are significantly increased on all of the testing days. IBA one staining for microglia and macrophages reveals changes in experimental mouse inflammatory profiles, after repeat MTBI, compared to single MTBI or sham animals.Repeat MTBI animals display a strong IBA one immunoreactivity that is limited to the optic tract, with no evidence of gray matter inflammation in the cortex, hippocampus or other brain areas. Once mastered, this technique can be done in five minutes if it is performed properly.

a-mouse-model-of-single-and-repetitive-mild-traumatic-brain-injury

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10.9K vues.  Georgetown University Medical Center. The overall goal of this mouse model of traumatic brain injury or TBI, is to create a reliable and reproducible method for examining the mechanisms that underlie concussive and sub-concussive brain injury. This method facilitates the investigation of key questions in the mouse TBI field such as, what are the physiological changes that occur in the brain after single or repeat concussion. The main advantage of this technique is that the injury device is specifically designed to allow repetitiv...

Vidéo: A Mouse Model of Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Athletes absorb several hundred mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI)/concussions every year; however, the consequence of these on the brain is poorly understood. Therefore, an animal model of single and repetitive mTBI that consistently replicates clinically relevant symptoms provides the means to advance the study of mTBI and...

modified mouse model of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury incorporating thinned-skull window and fluid percussion

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Rodent Models for Investigating the Mechanisms and Rehabilitation in Repeated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

This protocol presents a modified mouse model of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) induced via a closed-head injury (CHI) method. The approach features a thinned-skull window and fluid percussion to reduce the inflammation commonly caused by meninges exposure, along with improved reproducibility and accuracy in modeling rmTBI in...

Modified Mouse Model of Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Incorporating Thinned-Skull Window and Fluid Percussion

inducing post-traumatic epilepsy in a mouse model of repetitive diffuse traumatic brain injury

Inducing Post-Traumatic Epilepsy in a Mouse Model of Repetitive Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury

This systematic protocol describes a new animal model of post-traumatic epilepsy after repetitive mild traumatic brain injury. The first part details steps for traumatic brain injury induction using a modified weight drop model. The second part provides instructions on the surgical approach for single- and multi-channel electroencephalographic data acquisition...

evaluation of blood-brain barrier breakdown in a mouse model of mild traumatic brain injury

Author Spotlight: Advancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research by Mapping Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown Using Dual-Dye Fluorescence

A method was developed to visualize dye extravasation due to blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown by administering two fluorescent dyes to mice at different time points. The use of glycerol as a cryoprotectant facilitated immunohistochemistry on the same...

Evaluation of Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown in a Mouse Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

a novel model of mild traumatic brain injury for juvenile rats

A Novel Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury for Juvenile Rats

The modified weight-drop technique is an easy, cost-effective procedure used for the induction of mild traumatic brain injury in juvenile rats. This novel technique produces clinically relevant symptomology that will advance the study of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion.

rat model of closed-head mild traumatic injury and its validation

Author Spotlight: Advancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research - A Closed-Head Model for Accurate Replication and Rapid Assessment 

Here, we present a closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) rat model and its validation exhibiting remarkable similarity to human mTBI concerning behavioral manifestations during the acute and subacute...

Validating Injury Response and Behavioral Assessments in an mTBI Rat Model

https://cloudfront.jove.com/CDNSource/teasers/65849_b.jpg

inducing and monitoring repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmtbi) in mice using a modified fluid percussion device

Inducing and Monitoring Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (rmTBI) in Mice Using a Modified Fluid Percussion Device

rmTBI Induction in Mice via a Closed-Head Injury Method

https://cloudfront.jove.com/CDNSource/teasers/66440_b.jpg

electromagnetic controlled closed-head model of mild traumatic brain injury in mice

Electromagnetic Controlled Closed-Head Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

The protocol describes mild traumatic brain injury in a mouse model. In particular, a step-by-step protocol to induce a mild midline closed head injury and the characterization of the animal model is fully...

experimental set up to create a rat model of mild traumatic brain injury (mtbi)

Experimental Set Up to Create a Rat Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI)  

Experimental Set Up to Create a Rat Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI)

Rat Model of Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Injury and its Validation

assessing changes in synaptic plasticity using an awake closed-head injury model of mild traumatic brain injury

Assessing Changes in Synaptic Plasticity Using an Awake Closed-Head Injury Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Here, it is demonstrated how an awake closed-head injury model can be used for examining the effects of repeated mild traumatic brain injury (r-mTBI) on synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. The model replicates important features of r-mTBI in patients and is used in conjunction with in vitro...

neurobehavior assessment of the closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (mtbi) rat model

Neurobehavior Assessment of the Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI) Rat Model  

Neurobehavior Assessment of the Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) Rat Model

acute neurobehavioral assessments of the closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (mtbi) rat model

Acute Neurobehavioral Assessments of the Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI) Rat Model  

Acute Neurobehavioral Assessments of the Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) Rat Model

investigations on alterations of hippocampal circuit function following mild traumatic brain injury

Investigations on Alterations of Hippocampal Circuit Function Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

A multi-faceted approach to investigating functional changes to hippocampal circuitry is explained.  Electrophysiological techniques are described along with the injury protocol, behavioral testing and regional dissection method.  The combination of these techniques can be applied in similar fashion for other brain regions and scientific...

advanced diffusion imaging in the hippocampus of rats with mild traumatic brain injury

Advanced Diffusion Imaging in The Hippocampus of Rats with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

The overall goal of this procedure is to obtain quantitative microstructural information of the hippocampus in a rat with mild traumatic brain injury. This is done using an advanced diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging protocol and region-of-interest based analysis of parametric diffusion...

low-intensity blast wave model for preclinical assessment of closed-head mild traumatic brain injury in rodents

Low-intensity Blast Wave Model for Preclinical Assessment of Closed-head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Rodents

We present here a protocol of a blast wave model for rodents to investigate neurobiological and pathophysiological effects of mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. We established a gas-driven, bench-top setup equipped with pressure sensors allowing for reliable and reproducible generation of blast-induced mild to moderate traumatic brain...

a novel in vitro model of blast traumatic brain injury

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

This paper describes a novel model of primary blast traumatic brain injury. A compressed-air driven shock tube is used to expose in vitro mouse hippocampal slice cultures to a single shock wave. This is a simple and rapid protocol generating a reproducible brain tissue injury with a high throughput.

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

controlled cortical impact model for traumatic brain injury

Controlled Cortical Impact Model for Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) remain a serious health problem. Using the controlled cortical impact surgery model, research on the effects of TBI and possible treatment methods may be...

Normothermic Cardiac Arrest and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: A Mouse Model of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a common, highly lethal, complication of critical illness which has a high mortality1-4 and which is most 
frequently caused by whole-body hypoperfusion.5,6 Successful reproduction of whole-body hypoperfusion in rodent models has been fraught with 
difficulty.7-9,9,10 Models which employ focal ischemia have repeatedly demonstrated results which do not translate to the clinical setting, and larger 
animal models which allow for whole body hypoperfusion lack access to the full toolset of genetic manipulation possible in the mouse.11,12 However, in recent 
years a mouse model of cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation has emerged which can be adapted to model AKI.13 This model reliably reproduces 
physiologic, functional, anatomic, and histologic outcomes seen in clinical AKI, is rapidly repeatable, and offers all of the significant advantages of a murine surgical 
model, including access to genetic manipulative techniques, low cost relative to large animals, and ease of use. Our group has developed extensive experience 
with use of this model to assess a number of organ-specific outcomes in AKI.14,15

A powerful model for perioperative and critical care related acute kidney injury is presented. Using whole body hypoperfusion induced by cardiac arrest it is possible to nearly replicate the histologic and functional changes of clinical AKI.

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a common, highly lethal, complication of critical illness which has a high mortality1-4 and which is most 
frequently caused ...

Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for objective diagnosis but also for the evaluation of therapeutic efficacy and resilience to trauma. Ongoing research is directed at identifying molecular biomarkers for PTSD, including traumatic stress induced proteins, transcriptomes, genomic variances and genetic modulators, using biologic samples from subjects' blood, saliva, urine, and postmortem brain tissues. However, the correlation of these biomarker molecules in peripheral or postmortem samples to altered brain functions associated with psychiatric symptoms in PTSD remains unresolved. Here, we present an animal model of PTSD in which both peripheral blood and central brain biomarkers, as well as behavioral phenotype, can be collected and measured, thus providing the needed correlation of the central biomarkers of PTSD, which are mechanistic and pathognomonic but cannot be collected from people, with the peripheral biomarkers and behavioral phenotypes, which can.
Our animal model of PTSD employs restraint and tail shocks repeated for three continuous days - the inescapable tail-shock model (ITS) in rats. This ITS model mimics the pathophysiology of PTSD 17, 7, 4, 10. We and others have verified that the ITS model induces behavioral and neurobiological alterations similar to those found in PTSD subjects 17, 7, 10, 9. Specifically, these stressed rats exhibit (1) a delayed and exaggerated startle response appearing several days after stressor cessation, which given the compressed time scale of the rat's life compared to a humans, corresponds to the one to three months delay of symptoms in PTSD patients (DSM-IV-TR PTSD Criterian D/E 13), (2) enhanced plasma corticosterone (CORT) for several days, indicating compromise of the hypothalamopituitary axis (HPA), and (3) retarded body weight gain after stressor cessation, indicating dysfunction of metabolic regulation.
The experimental paradigms employed for this model are: (1) a learned helplessness paradigm in the rat assayed by measurement of acoustic startle response (ASR) and a charting of body mass; (2) microdissection of the rat brain into regions and nuclei; (3) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for blood levels of CORT; (4) a gene expression microarray plus related bioinformatics tools 18. This microarray, dubbed rMNChip, focuses on mitochondrial and mitochondria-related nuclear genes in the rat so as to specifically address the neuronal bioenergetics hypothesized to be involved in PTSD.

We describe a rat model of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that reveals the persistent alterations in neuroendocrine function and the delayed long-term, exaggerated fear response, characteristic of PTSD patients. The animal model and methods described here are useful for correlating biomarkers in brain nuclei, which are mechanistic but cannot be measured in patients, with biomarkers in peripheral white blood cells, which can.

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for ...

Stretch in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells (cEND) as an In Vitro Traumatic Brain Injury Model of the Blood Brain Barrier

Due to the high mortality incident brought about by traumatic brain injury (TBI), methods that would enable one to better understand the underlying mechanisms involved in it are useful for treatment. There are both in vivo and in vitro methods available for this purpose. In vivo models can mimic actual head injury as it occurs during TBI. However, in vivo techniques may not be exploited for studies at the cell physiology level. Hence, in vitro methods are more advantageous for this purpose since they provide easier access to the cells and the extracellular environment for manipulation.
Our protocol presents an in vitro model of TBI using stretch injury in brain microvascular endothelial cells. It utilizes pressure applied to the cells cultured in flexible-bottomed wells. The pressure applied may easily be controlled and can produce injury that ranges from low to severe. The murine brain microvascular endothelial cells (cEND) generated in our laboratory is a well-suited model for the blood brain barrier (BBB) thus providing an advantage to other systems that employ a similar technique. In addition, due to the simplicity of the method, experimental set-ups are easily duplicated. Thus, this model can be used in studying the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in TBI at the BBB.

Stretch in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells cEND as an In Vitro Traumatic Brain Injury Model of the Blood Brain Barrier

In vitro traumatic brain injury models are being developed to reproduce in vivo brain deformation. Stretch-induced injury has been employed for astrocytes, neurons, glial cells, aortic, and brain endothelial cells. However, our system uses a blood brain barrier (BBB) model that possesses properties constituting a legitimate model of the BBB to establish an in vitro&#160;TBI model.

Due to the high mortality incident brought about by traumatic brain injury (TBI), methods that would enable one to better understand the underlying ...

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, social, and economical effects are staggering. Therefore, further research into the effects of TBI and effective treatments is necessary. The controlled cortical impact (CCI) model induces traumatic brain injuries ranging from mild to severe. This method uses a rigid impactor to deliver mechanical energy to an intact dura exposed following a craniectomy. Impact is made under precise parameters at a set velocity to achieve a pre-determined deformation depth. Although other TBI models, such as weight drop and fluid percussion, exist, CCI is more accurate, easier to control, and most importantly, produces traumatic brain injuries similar to those seen in humans. However, no TBI model is currently able to reproduce pathological changes identical to those seen in human patients. The CCI model allows investigation into the short-term and long-term effects of TBI, such as neuronal death, memory deficits, and cerebral edema, as well as potential therapeutic treatments for TBI.

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) remain a serious health problem. Using the controlled cortical impact surgery model, research on the effects of TBI and possible treatment methods may be performed.

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI).  Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, ...

Renal Ischaemia Reperfusion Injury: A Mouse Model of Injury and Regeneration

Renal ischaemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is a common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients and occlusion of renal blood flow is unavoidable during renal transplantation. Experimental models that accurately and reproducibly recapitulate renal IRI are crucial in dissecting the pathophysiology of AKI and the development of novel therapeutic agents. Presented here is a mouse model of renal IRI that results in reproducible AKI. This is achieved by a midline laparotomy approach for the surgery with one incision allowing both a right nephrectomy that provides control tissue and clamping of the left renal pedicle to induce ischaemia of the left kidney. By careful monitoring of the clamp position and body temperature during the period of ischaemia this model achieves reproducible functional and structural injury. Mice sacrificed 24 hr&#160;following surgery demonstrate loss of renal function with elevation of the serum or plasma creatinine level as well as structural kidney damage with acute tubular necrosis evident. Renal function improves and the acute tissue injury resolves during the course of 7 days following renal IRI such that this model may be used to study renal regeneration. This model of renal IRI has been utilized to study the molecular and cellular pathophysiology of AKI as well as analysis of the subsequent renal regeneration.

The mouse model of renal ischaemia reperfusion injury described here comprises of a right nephrectomy that provides control tissue and clamping of the left renal pedicle to induce ischaemia that results in acute kidney injury. This model uses a midline laparotomy approach with all steps performed via one incision.

Renal ischaemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is a common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients and occlusion of renal blood flow is unavoidable ...

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor vehicle accidents, and falls, a reliable animal model of mTBI had previously not been developed for this important aspect of development. The modified weight-drop technique employs a glancing impact to the head of a freely moving rodent transmitting acceleration, deceleration, and rotational forces upon the brain. When applied to juvenile rats, this modified weight-drop technique induced clinically relevant behavioural outcomes that were representative of post-concussion symptomology. The technique is a rapidly applied procedure with an extremely low mortality rate, rendering it ideal for high-throughput studies of therapeutics. In addition, because the procedure involves a mild injury to a closed head, it can easily be used for studies of repetitive brain injury. Owing to the simplistic nature of this technique, and the clinically relevant biomechanics of the injury pathophysiology, the modified weight-drop technique provides researchers with a reliable model of mTBI that can be used in a wide variety of behavioural, molecular, and genetic studies.

The modified weight-drop technique is an easy, cost-effective procedure used for the induction of mild traumatic brain injury in juvenile rats. This novel technique produces clinically relevant symptomology that will advance the study of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion.

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor ...

A Neonatal Mouse Spinal Cord Compression Injury Model

Spinal cord injury (SCI) typically causes devastating neurological deficits, particularly through damage to fibers descending from the brain to the spinal cord. A major current area of research is focused on the mechanisms of adaptive plasticity that underlie spontaneous or induced functional recovery following SCI. Spontaneous functional recovery is reported to be greater early in life, raising interesting questions about how adaptive plasticity changes as the spinal cord develops. To facilitate investigation of this dynamic, we have developed a SCI model in the neonatal mouse. The model has relevance for pediatric SCI, which is too little studied. Because neural plasticity in the adult involves some of the same mechanisms as neural plasticity in early life1, this model may potentially have some relevance also for adult SCI. Here we describe the entire procedure for generating a reproducible spinal cord compression (SCC) injury in the neonatal mouse as early as postnatal (P) day 1. SCC is achieved by performing a laminectomy at a given spinal level (here described at thoracic levels 9-11) and then using a modified Yasargil aneurysm mini-clip to rapidly compress and decompress the spinal cord. As previously described, the injured neonatal mice can be tested for behavioral deficits or sacrificed for ex vivo physiological analysis of synaptic connectivity using electrophysiological and high-throughput optical recording techniques1. Earlier and ongoing studies using behavioral and physiological assessment have demonstrated a dramatic, acute impairment of hindlimb motility followed by a complete functional recovery within 2 weeks, and the first evidence of changes in functional circuitry at the level of identified descending synaptic connections1.

This article describes a method for generating a reproducible spinal cord compression injury (SCI) in the neonatal mouse. The model provides an advantageous platform for studying mechanisms of adaptive plasticity that underlie spontaneous functional recovery.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) typically causes devastating neurological deficits, particularly through damage to fibers descending from the brain to the spinal ...

A Mouse Model of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Through Elevation of Intraocular Pressure

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal vascular occlusions. Rodent models of I/R injury are providing significant insights into mechanisms and treatment strategies for human I/R injury, especially with regard to neurodegenerative damage in the retinal neurovascular unit. Presented here is a protocol for inducing retinal I/R injury in mice through elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP). In this protocol, the ocular anterior chamber is cannulated with a needle, through which flows the drip of an elevated saline reservoir. Using this drip to raise IOP above systolic arterial blood pressure, a practitioner temporarily halts inner retinal blood flow (ischemia). When circulation is reinstated (reperfusion) by removal of the cannula, severe cellular damage ensues, resulting ultimately in retinal neurodegeneration. Recent studies demonstrate inflammation, vascular permeability, and capillary degeneration as additional elements of this model. Compared to alternative retinal I/R methodologies, such as retinal arterial ligation, retinal I/R injury by elevated IOP offers advantages in its&#160;anatomical specificity, experimental tractability, and technical accessibility, presenting itself as a valuable tool for examining neuronal pathogenesis and therapy in the retinal neurovascular unit.

This article describes a procedure for inducing retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure in mice. Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure serves to model human pathologies characterized by compromised oxygen and nutrient delivery in the retina, enabling researchers to examine potential cellular mechanisms and treatments for human diseases of the retinal neurovascular unit.

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, ...

A Repetitive Concussive Head Injury Model in Mice

Despite the concussion/ mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) being the most frequent occurrence of traumatic brain injury, there is still a lack of knowledge on the injury and its effects. To develop a better understanding of concussions, animals are often used because they provide a controlled, rigorous, and efficient model. Studies have adapted traditional animal models to perform mTBI to stimulate mild injury severity by changing the injury parameters. These models have been used because they can produce morphologically similar brain injuries to the clinical condition and provide a spectrum of injury severities. However, they are limited in their ability to present the identical features of injuries in patients. Using a traditional impact system, a repetitive concussive injury (rCHI) model can induce mild to moderate human-like concussion. The injury degree can be determined by measuring the period of loss of consciousness (LOC) with a sign of a transient termination of breathing. The rCHI model is beneficial to use for its accuracy and simplicity in determining mTBI effects and potential treatments.

Concussion presents the most common type of traumatic brain injury. Therefore, a repetitive concussive animal model, which replicates the important features of an injury in patients, may provide a means to study concussion in a rigorous, controlled, and efficient manner.

Despite the concussion/ mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) being the most frequent occurrence of traumatic brain injury, there is still a lack of ...

A Tissue Displacement-based Contusive Spinal Cord Injury Model in Mice

Producing a consistent and reproducible contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) is critical to minimizing behavioral and histological variabilities between experimental animals. Several contusive SCI models have been developed to produce injuries using different mechanisms. The severity of the SCI is based on the height that a given weight is dropped, the injury force, or the spinal cord displacement. In the current study, we introduce a novel mouse contusive SCI device, the Louisville Injury System Apparatus (LISA) impactor, which can create a displacement-based SCI with high injury velocity and accuracy. This system utilizes laser distance sensors combined with advanced software to produce graded and highly-reproducible injuries. We performed a contusive SCI at the 10th thoracic vertebral (T10) level in mice to demonstrate the step-by-step procedure. The model can also be applied to the cervical and lumbar spinal levels.

We introduce a tissue displacement-based contusive spinal cord injury model that can produce a consistent contusive spinal cord injury in adult mice.

Producing a consistent and reproducible contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) is critical to minimizing behavioral and histological variabilities between ...