This work was supported by the Australian Research Council [DP11010246].

<ol>
	<li>Mirkin, E. V., Mirkin, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replication+fork+stalling+at+natural+impediments.">Replication fork stalling at natural impediments.</a> Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 71 (1), 13-35 (2007).</li><li>Gupta, M. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein-DNA+complexes+are+the+primary+sources+of+replication+fork+pausing+in+Escherichia+coli.">Protein-DNA complexes are the primary sources of replication fork pausing in Escherichia coli.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 110 (18), 7252-7257 (2013).</li><li>McGlynn, P., Guy, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replication+forks+blocked+by+protein-DNA+complexes+have+limited+stability+in+vitro.">Replication forks blocked by protein-DNA complexes have limited stability in vitro.</a> J Mol Biol. 381 (2), 249-255 (2008).</li><li>Tanner, N. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+studies+of+fork+dynamics+in+Escherichia+coli+DNA+replication.">Single-molecule studies of fork dynamics in Escherichia coli DNA replication.</a> Nat Struct Mol Biol. 15 (2), 170-176 (2008).</li><li>Hamdan, S. M., Loparo, J. J., Takahashi, M., Richardson, C. C., van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+DNA+replication+loops+reveal+temporal+control+of+lagging-strand+synthesis.">Dynamics of DNA replication loops reveal temporal control of lagging-strand synthesis.</a> Nature. 457 (7227), 336-339 (2009).</li><li>Rudolph, C. J., Upton, A. L., Lloyd, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replication+fork+stalling+and+cell+cycle+arrest+in+UV-irradiated+Escherichia+coli.">Replication fork stalling and cell cycle arrest in UV-irradiated Escherichia coli.</a> Genes Dev. 21 (6), 668-681 (2007).</li><li>Jeiranian, H. A., Courcelle, C. T., Courcelle, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inefficient+replication+reduces+RecA-mediated+repair+of+UV-damaged+plasmids+introduced+into+competent+Escherichia+coli.">Inefficient replication reduces RecA-mediated repair of UV-damaged plasmids introduced into competent Escherichia coli.</a> Plasmid. 68 (2), 113-124 (2012).</li><li>Le Masson, M., Baharoglu, Z., Michel, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ruvA+and+ruvB+mutants+specifically+impaired+for+replication+fork+reversal.">ruvA and ruvB mutants specifically impaired for replication fork reversal.</a> Mol Microbiol. 70 (2), 537-548 (2008).</li><li>Wang, X., Liu, X., Possoz, C., Sherratt, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+two+Escherichia+coli+chromosome+arms+locate+to+separate+cell+halves.">The two Escherichia coli chromosome arms locate to separate cell halves.</a> Genes Dev. 20 (13), 1727-1731 (2006).</li><li>Lau, I. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+and+temporal+organization+of+replicating+Escherichia+coli+chromosomes.">Spatial and temporal organization of replicating Escherichia coli chromosomes.</a> Mol Microbiol. 49 (3), 731-743 (2003).</li><li>Gordon, G. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chromosome+and+low+copy+plasmid+segregation+in+E.+coli:+visual+evidence+for+distinct+mechanisms.">Chromosome and low copy plasmid segregation in E. coli: visual evidence for distinct mechanisms.</a> Cell. 90 (6), 1113-1121 (1997).</li><li>Possoz, C., Filipe, S. R., Grainge, I., Sherratt, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+of+controlled+Escherichia+coli+replication+fork+stalling+and+restart+at+repressor-bound+DNA+in+vivo.">Tracking of controlled Escherichia coli replication fork stalling and restart at repressor-bound DNA in vivo.</a> EMBO J. 25 (11), 2596-2604 (2006).</li><li>Payne, B. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replication+fork+blockage+by+transcription+factor-DNA+complexes+in+Escherichia+coli.">Replication fork blockage by transcription factor-DNA complexes in Escherichia coli.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 34 (18), 5194-5202 (2006).</li><li>Brewer, B. J., Fangman, W. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+localization+of+replication+origins+on+ARS+plasmids+in+S.+cerevisiae.">The localization of replication origins on ARS plasmids in S. cerevisiae.</a> Cell. 51 (3), 463-471 (1987).</li><li>Jeiranian, H. A., Schalow, B. J., Courcelle, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+UV-induced+replication+intermediates+in+E.+coli+using+two-dimensional+agarose-gel+analysis.">Visualization of UV-induced replication intermediates in E. coli using two-dimensional agarose-gel analysis.</a> J Vis Exp. (46), (2010).</li><li>Southern, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+specific+sequences+among+DNA+fragments+separated+by+gel+electrophoresis.">Detection of specific sequences among DNA fragments separated by gel electrophoresis.</a> J Mol Biol. 98 (3), 503-517 (1975).</li><li>Courcelle, J., Donaldson, J. R., Chow, K. H., Courcelle, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+damage-induced+replication+fork+regression+and+processing+in+Escherichia+coli.">DNA damage-induced replication fork regression and processing in Escherichia coli.</a> Science. 299 (5609), 1064-1067 (2003).</li><li>Mettrick, K. A., Grainge, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stability+of+blocked+replication+forks+in+vivo.">Stability of blocked replication forks in vivo.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. , (2015).</li><li>Church, G. M., Gilbert, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+sequencing.">Genomic sequencing.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 81 (7), 1991-1995 (1984).</li><li>Michel, B., Grompone, G., Flores, M. J., Bidnenko, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+pathways+process+stalled+replication+forks.">Multiple pathways process stalled replication forks.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101 (35), 12783-12788 (2004).</li><li>Michel, B., Boubakri, H., Baharoglu, Z., LeMasson, M., Lestini, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombination+proteins+and+rescue+of+arrested+replication+forks.">Recombination proteins and rescue of arrested replication forks.</a> DNA Repair (Amst). 6 (7), 967-980 (2007).</li><li>Carl, P. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Escherichia+coli+mutants+with+temperature-sensitive+synthesis+of+DNA.">Escherichia coli mutants with temperature-sensitive synthesis of DNA.</a> Mol Gen Genet. 109 (2), 107-122 (1970).</li><li>Nawotka, K. A., Huberman, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-dimensional+gel+electrophoretic+method+for+mapping+DNA+replicons.">Two-dimensional gel electrophoretic method for mapping DNA replicons.</a> Mol Cell Biol. 8 (4), 1408-1413 (1988).</li><li>Cole, R. S., Levitan, D., Sinden, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Removal+of+psoralen+interstrand+cross-links+from+DNA+of+Escherichia+coli:+mechanism+and+genetic+control.">Removal of psoralen interstrand cross-links from DNA of Escherichia coli: mechanism and genetic control.</a> J Mol Biol. 103 (1), 39-59 (1976).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

During chromosome duplication, the replication machinery will encounter various impediments that prevent its progress. To ensure the entire single-origin chromosome is replicated, bacteria have numerous pathways for repair of the DNA that then enables the replisome to be reloaded20,21. Lesions, single stranded breaks, double stranded breaks and proteins tightly bound to the DNA may each be dealt with using a dedicated pathway, although there is likely to be significant overlap in these pathways. The most commo...

במהלך שכפול ה- DNA, replisome פונה מכשולים על DNA הפוגע בהתנהלותה. נזק לדנ&quot;א כולל נגעים ופערים כמו גם מבנים סוטה יכול למנוע replisome מ שתמשיך 1. לאחרונה, זה כבר נמצא כי חלבונים מאוגדים ה- DNA הם המקור הנפוץ ביותר של מניעה שכפול התקדמות מזלג 2. הידע של אירועים בעקבות המפגש של replisome עם בלוק nucleoprotein הוגבל בעבר על ידי חוסר היכולת לגרום בלוק כזה כרומוזום של תא חי בבאתר ידוע. ניתוח במבחנה שיפרה את ההבנה שלנו של התנהגות קינטית של replisome פעיל כאשר הוא פוגש סתימה nucleoprotein 3, כמו גם את הפרטים מכניסטית של replisome עצמו 4,5. הבנה נוכחית של התיקון של שכפול נעשית בדרך כלל עם UV כסוכן המזיק ללמוד באמצעות פלסמיד דנ&quot;א in vivo 6-8 </sעד&gt;. בעוד החלבונים שעשויים להיות מעורב תיקון DNA לאחר היא נתקלת לחסום nucleoprotein vivo ב הם הבינו בדרך כלל ממחקרים אלה, אם ישנן וריאציות של האירועים המולקולריים בתוך מסלולי התיקון בשל הגורם הברור בבלוק שהכפול עדיין עדיין להיות נחוש. כאן אנו מתארים מערכת המאפשרת לחסום nucleoprotein שיוקם במיקום ספציפי של כרומוזום באמצעות מערכת מפעיל פלורסנט מדכאת (FROS). אנו מנצלים זן של E. coli כי יש לו מערך של 240 אתרי TETO שולבו כרומוזום 9. כל אתר TETO בתוך המערך יש רצף אקראי 10 נ&quot;ב איגוף זה כדי להגדיל את היציבות של המערך על ידי מניעת רקומבינציה בתיווך RecA בתוך המערך. מערך זה, ווריאציות של אותו, שימשו במקור להבין E. דינמיקת כרומוזום coli 10,11 אבל הותאמו ואז preveNT in vivo שכפול 12. המערך נמצא להישמר ביציבות לחסום קרוב ל -100% של מזלגות שכפול כאשר מחויב TetR 10,12. השימוש במערך Laco הדומה במבחנה מצא כמה כמו 22 אתרים היו מספיקים כדי לחסום 90% של שכפול, למרות מערך קצר זה היה פחות יעיל vivo 13. כדי להתאים את המערך ליצור סתימת nucleoprotein, החלבון המדכא חייב להיות overproduced מאוד בתנאי אופטימיזציה איפה זה אז נקשר המערך ליצור מחסום. היווצרות של חסימה, ולשחרר הבאים שלה, ניתן לנטר באמצעות מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי אם גרסה מתויג fluorescently של מדכא ט משמש. מעמדו של שכפול בכל תא מותווה במספר המוקדים לראות, שם נקודה אחת מוקדים אומר רק עותק אחד של המערך נמצא בתוך התא מוקדים מרובים מעידים על שכפול פעיל. מחדש אקטיבית זוקפול מופעלת כאשר חסימת nucleoprotein מתהפכת על ידי התוספת של inducer מיותר כי מקטין את הזיקה המחייבת של TetR עבור האתר מפעיל מספיק עבור replisome ולעבור את המערך. החלבון המדכא עדיין מסוגל להיקשר ל- DNA עם זיקה גבוהה מספיק כי העותקים עכשיו המרובים של המערך ניתן דמיינו. עוד פרטים סבוכים של אירועי סתימת nucleoprotein יכולים להתגלות באמצעות ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose ניטראלי ניטראלית דו ממדים ו כלת דרום 14-16. טכניקות אלו מאפשרים ניתוח של מבנים DNA על פני האוכלוסייה. ביניים שכפול אשר נוצרים במהלך האירוע, ואפשרות להישאר מתוקנים, ניתן דמיינו. על ידי שינוי אנזים ההגבלה ו ניצל חללי, את התשומות ניתן דמיינו לא רק באזור אלא גם מערך זרם של המערך כאשר המזלג שהכפול נסוג 17,18. הרגרסיה מתקיים לאחר ניתוק replisome; גדילי המתהווה המובילים מפגרים נפרדים מן גדילי התבנית לחשל זה לזה כמו גדילי תבנית במקביל מחדש לחשל וכתוצאה מכך מבנה ה- DNA ארבעה-כיווני (צומת הולידיי). באמצעות מערכת זו הוכחה כי המזלג שהכפול אינו יציב כאשר הוא נתקל בלוק זה 18. בנוסף, נגזרים רגישים לטמפרטורה של רכיבי replisome יכולים להיות מנוצלים כדי למנוע העמסת יתר של המזלג שכפול פעם זה קרס. לאחר בלוק מוקם, הזן יכול להיות מוזז לטמפרטורה אוֹסְרָנִי כדי להבטיח שחרור משרות סינכרוני של replisome וכן מניעת מבוקרת של העמסת יתר. הטמפרטורה הנגרמת זה שחרור משרות מבטיחה כל המזלגות בתוך האוכלוסייה קרסו בזמן נתון ומאפשר הערכה של מה קורה כאשר replisome מתמוטט, כיצד DNA מעובד, ומה נדרש כדי מחדשלהתחיל בתהליך של שכפול ה- DNA. אחד היתרונות של המערכת המתוארת כאן היא כי לחסום nucleoprotein הוא הפיך לחלוטין; ולכן, היכולת של התאים להתאושש מגוש nucleoprotein היא מסוגלת להיות אחריו. התוספת של anhydrotetracycline לתאי תקל על דוק מחייב של המדכא, המאפשרת מזלג שכפול ולעבור והתא להשיב כדאיות. ההקלה של סתימה ניתן דמיינו ידי נייטרלי נייטרלי דו מימדי ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose לאחר 5 דק &#39;, ועל ידי מיקרוסקופיה בתוך 10 דקות. יתר על כן, ניתוח כדאיות יכול לחשוף את היכולת של הזן להתאושש הסתימה שהכפולה ממשיך להתרבות. על ידי שינוי הרקע הגנטי של הזנים המשמשים הליך הניסוי המתואר כאן, שמסלולי התיקון עבור סוג זה של חסימה ניתן הובהרו.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Tryptone</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>16922</td><td>Growth media component</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Chloride</td><td>VWR</td><td>27810.364</td><td>Growth media component</td></tr><tr><td>Yeast extract</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>92144</td><td>Growth media component</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P9791</td><td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P3786</td><td>Growth media component; Potassium buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>L-Arabinose</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A3256</td><td>For induction of TetR-YFP production</td></tr><tr><td>Anhydrotetracycline hydrochloride</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>37919</td><td>Release of replication bloackage</td></tr><tr><td>Axioskop 2 Fluorescence microscope</td><td>Zeiss</td><td>452310</td><td>Visualization of cells</td></tr><tr><td>eYFP filter set</td><td>Chroma Technology</td><td>41028</td><td>Visualization of YFP</td></tr><tr><td>CCD camera</td><td>Hamamatsu</td><td>Orca-AG</td><td>Visualization of cells</td></tr><tr><td>MetaMorph&amp;nbsp; Software (Molecular Devices)</td><td>SDR Scientific</td><td>31282</td><td>Version 7.8.0.0 used in the preparation of this manuscript</td></tr><tr><td>Agarose</td><td>Bioline</td><td>BIO-41025</td><td>For agarose plugs and gel electrophoresis</td></tr><tr><td>Original Glass Water Repellent (Rain-X)</td><td>Autobarn</td><td>DIO1470</td><td>For agarose plug manufacture</td></tr><tr><td>TRIS</td><td>VWR</td><td>VWRC103157P</td><td>TE, TBE buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid</td><td>Ajax Finechem</td><td>AJA180</td><td>0.5 M EDTA disodium salt solution adjusted to pH 8.0 with NaOH.</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium azide</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S2002</td><td>Bacteriostatic agent</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrochloric acid</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>258148</td><td>TE buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium deoxycholate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D6750</td><td>Cell lysis buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>N-Lauroylsarcosine sodium salt (Sarkosyl)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>L5125</td><td>Cell lysis and ESP buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Rnase A</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>R6513</td><td>Cell lysis buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Lysozyme</td><td>Amresco</td><td>6300</td><td>Cell lysis buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Proteinase K</td><td>Amresco</td><td>AM0706</td><td>ESP buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Sub-Cell Model 192 Cell</td><td>BioRad</td><td>1704507</td><td>Electrophoresis system</td></tr><tr><td>UV transilluminator 2000</td><td>BioRad</td><td>1708110</td><td>Visualization of DNA</td></tr><tr><td>Ethidium Bromide</td><td>BioRad</td><td>1610433</td><td>Visualization of DNA</td></tr><tr><td>Boric acid</td><td>VWR</td><td>PROL20185.360</td><td>TBE component</td></tr><tr><td>Hybond-XL nylon memrbane</td><td>Amersham</td><td>RPN203S</td><td>Zeta-Probe Memrbane (BioRad 1620159) can also be used</td></tr><tr><td>3MM Whatman chromatography paper</td><td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td><td>3030690</td><td>Southern blotting</td></tr><tr><td>HL-2000 Hybrilinker</td><td>UVP</td><td>95-0031-01/02</td><td>Crosslinking of DNA and hybridization</td></tr><tr><td>Deoxyribonucleic acid from salmon sperm</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>31149</td><td>Hybridization buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hydroxide</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S5881</td><td>Denaturation buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Trisodium citrate dihydrate</td><td>VWR</td><td>PROL27833.363</td><td>Transfer buffer</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)</td><td>Amresco</td><td>227</td><td>Wash buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Bovine serum albumin</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A7906</td><td>Hybridization buffer component</td></tr><tr><td>Random Hexamer Primers</td><td>Bioline</td><td>BIO-38028</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Klenow fragment</td><td>New England BioLabs</td><td>M0212L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dNTP Set</td><td>Bioline</td><td>BIO-39025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Adenosine 5&amp;rsquo;-triphosphate-&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;P-ATP</td><td>PerkinElmer</td><td>BLU502A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Storage Phosphor Screen</td><td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td><td>GEHE28-9564-76</td><td>BAS-IP MS 3543 E multipurpose standard 35 cm x 43 cm screen</td></tr><tr><td>Typhoon FLA 7000</td><td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td><td>28-9558-09</td><td>Visualization of blot</td></tr><tr><td>Hybridization bottle</td><td>UVP</td><td>07-0194-02</td><td>35 mm x 300 mm</td></tr></tbody></table>

inducing a site specific replication blockage in e. coli using a fluorescent repressor operator system

מכשולים המצויים על גבי ה- DNA, כוללים חלבונים בחוזקה נכנס ונגעים שונים, יכולים לעכב את ההתקדמות קשה של השכפול של התא. ההשתהות של replisome יכולה להוביל את ניתוק מן כרומוזום, או באופן חלקי או בשלמותו, מובילה לקריסה של המזלג שכפול. ההתאוששות מקריסה זו היא הכרח עבור התא שכפול כרומוזומליות מלא במדויק ולאחר מכן לחלק. לכן, כאשר הקריסה מתרחשת, התא התפתח מנגנונים מגוונים המתרחשים לשחזר את מזלג DNA ולאפשר שכפול להסתיים עם איכות גבוהה. בעבר, מסלולי תיקון שכפול אלה בחיידקים נחקרו באמצעות נזק UV, אשר יש לו את החיסרון של לא להיות מקומי לאתר ידוע. כתב יד זה מתאר מערכת ניצול מערכת מפעיל הקרינה מדכא (FROS) כדי ליצור בלוק חלבון מסוים באתר שיכולים לגרום השתהות וקריסה של שכפול FOrks ב coli Escherichia. פרט הפרוטוקולים כיצד מצב של שכפול ניתן דמיינו תאים בודדים חיים באמצעות מיקרוסקופ פלואורסצנטי ביניים DNA שכפול יכול להיות מנותח על ידי ג&#39;ל אלקטרופורזה agarose 2-ממדי. מוטציות טמפרטורה רגישות של רכיבי replisome (למשל DnaBts) יכולות להיות משולבות לתוך המערכת כדי לגרום לקריסה סינכרוני של המזלגות שכפול. יתר על כן, את התפקידים של חלבונים רקומבינציה helicases כי הם מעורבים בתהליכים אלה ניתן ללמוד באמצעות knockouts הגנטי בתוך מערכת זו.

FROS הוא בלוק nucleoprotein מושרה, אתר ספציפי המאפשר ביניים שכפולים להיות דמיינו בתאי חי 12,18. עיצוב ניסיוני כללי על דגימת תאים מתואר באיור 1. העיתוי של דגימת וריאציות רקע גנטי לעשות זה מערכה צדדית ללימוד התיקון של גוש כזה. סכמטית ממחישה עד כמה מ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System at JoVE.com

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

התרמת סתימה שכפול לאתרים ספציפיים ב<i&gt; E. coli</i&gt; באמצעות מערכת מפעיל פלורסנט מדכא

Obstacles present on DNA, including tightly-bound proteins and various lesions, can severely inhibit the progression of the cell&#39;s replication ...

inducing-site-specific-replication-blockage-e-coli-using-fluorescent

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

8.9K Views.  University of Newcastle. We describe here a system utilizing a site-specific, reversible in vivo protein block to stall and collapse replication forks in Escherichia coli. The establishment of the replication block is evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and neutral-neutral 2-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis is used to visualize replication intermediates.

Video: Inducing a Site Specific Replication Blockage in E. coli Using a Fluorescent Repressor Operator System

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Location(s) for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In bacteria, the impact of the genetic context on the function of a genetic element can be difficult to assess. Several mechanisms, including topological effects, transcriptional interference from neighboring genes, and/or replication-associated gene dosage, may affect the function of a given genetic element. Here, we describe a method that permits the random integration of a DNA element into the chromosome of Escherichia coli and select the most favorable locations using a simple growth competition experiment. The method takes advantage of a well-described transposon-based system of random insertion, coupled with a selection of the fittest clone(s) by growth advantage, a procedure that is easily adjustable to experimental needs. The nature of the fittest clone(s) can be determined by whole-genome sequencing on a complex multi-clonal population or by easy gene walking for the rapid identification of selected clones. Here, the non-coding DNA region DARS2, which controls the initiation of chromosome replication in E. coli, was used as an example. The function of DARS2 is known to be affected by replication-associated gene dosage; the closer DARS2 gets to the origin of DNA replication, the more active it becomes. DARS2 was randomly inserted into the chromosome of a DARS2-deleted strain. The resultant clones containing individual insertions were pooled and competed against one another for hundreds of generations. Finally, the fittest clones were characterized and found to contain DARS2 inserted in close proximity to the original DARS2 location.

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Locations for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

Here, the power of a transposon-mediated random insertion of a non-coding DNA element was used to resolve its optimal chromosomal position.

קביעת Location(s) כרומוזומלית האופטימלית עבור רכיב ה-DNA ב- Escherichia coli באמצעות גישה מוזרה בתיווך Transposon

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In ...

Genetics

Site-specific Bacterial Chromosome Engineering: &#934;C31 Integrase Mediated Cassette Exchange (IMCE)

The bacterial chromosome may be used to stably maintain foreign DNA in the mega-base range1. Integration into the chromosome circumvents issues such as plasmid replication, plasmid stability, plasmid incompatibility, and plasmid copy number variance. This method uses the site-specific integrase from the Streptomyces phage (&Phi;) C312,3. The &Phi;C31 integrase catalyzes a direct recombination between two specific DNA sites: attB and attP (34 and 39 bp, respectively)4. This recombination is stable and does not revert5. A "landing pad" (LP) sequence consisting of a spectinomycin- resistance gene, aadA (SpR), and the E. coli &szlig;-glucuronidase gene (uidA) flanked by attP sites has been integrated into the chromosomes of Sinorhizobium meliloti, Ochrobactrum anthropi, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens in an intergenic region, the ampC locus, and the tetA locus, respectively. S. meliloti is used in this protocol. Mobilizable donor vectors containing attB sites flanking a stuffer red fluorescent protein (rfp) gene and an antibiotic resistance gene have also been constructed. In this example the gentamicin resistant plasmid pJH110 is used. The rfp gene6 may be replaced with a desired construct using SphI and PstI. Alternatively a synthetic construct flanked by attB sites may be sub-cloned into a mobilizable vector such as pK19mob7. The expression of the &Phi;C31 integrase gene (cloned from pHS628) is driven by the lac promoter, on a mobilizable broad host range plasmid pRK78139.
A tetraparental mating protocol is used to transfer the donor cassette into the LP strain thereby replacing the markers in the LP sequence with the donor cassette. These cells are trans-integrants. Trans-integrants are formed with a typical efficiency of 0.5%. Trans-integrants are typically found within the first 500-1,000 colonies screened by antibiotic sensitivity or blue-white screening using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-D-glucuronic acid (X-gluc). This protocol contains the mating and selection procedures for creating and isolating trans-integrants.

A quick and efficient method to integrate foreign DNA of interest into pre-made acceptor strains, termed landing pad strains, is described. The method allows site-specific integration of a DNA cassette into the engineered landing pad locus of a given strain, through conjugation and expression of the &#934;C31 integrase.

אתר ספציפי הנדסה כרומוזום בקטריאלי: ΦC31 מתווכת integrase קלטת Exchange (IMCE)

The bacterial chromosome may be used to stably maintain foreign DNA in the mega-base range1. Integration into the chromosome circumvents issues such as ...

Bioengineering

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

The method described here consists in redesigning E. coli adherence properties by assembling the minimum number of curli genes under the control of a strong and metal-overinducible promoter, and in visualizing and quantifying the resulting gain of bacterial adherence. This method applies appropriate engineering principles of abstraction and standardization of synthetic biology, and results in the BBa_K540000 Biobrick (Best new Biobrick device, engineered, iGEM 2011).
The first step consists in the design of the synthetic operon devoted to curli overproduction in response to metal, and therefore in increasing the adherence abilities of the wild type strain. The original curli operon was modified in silico in order to optimize transcriptional and translational signals and escape the "natural" regulation of curli. This approach allowed to test with success our current understanding of curli production. Moreover, simplifying the curli regulation by switching the endogenous complex promoter (more than 10 transcriptional regulators identified) to a simple metal-regulated promoter makes adherence much easier to control.
The second step includes qualitative and quantitative assessment of adherence abilities by implementation of simple methods. These methods are applicable to a large range of adherent bacteria regardless of biological structures involved in biofilm formation. Adherence test in 24-well polystyrene plates provides a quick preliminary visualization of the bacterial biofilm after crystal violet staining. This qualitative test can be sharpened by the quantification of the percentage of adherence. Such a method is very simple but more accurate than only crystal violet staining as described previously 1 with both a good repeatability and reproducibility. Visualization of GFP-tagged bacteria on glass slides by fluorescence or laser confocal microscopy allows to strengthen the results obtained with the 24-well plate test by direct observation of the phenomenon.

The design of a synthetic operon encoding both the secretory apparatus and the structural monomers of curli fibers is described. Overproduction of these amyloids and adherent polymers allows a measurable gain of adherence of the E. coli chassis1. Easy ways to visualize and quantify adherence are explained.

הנדסת חיידקי חסיד ידי יצירת Curli אופרון סינטטי יחיד

The  method described here consists in redesigning E. coli adherence properties by assembling the minimum number of  curli genes under the control of a ...

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

A first approach to study the function of an unknown gene in bacteria is to create a knock-out of this gene. Here, we describe a robust and fast protocol for transferring gene deletion mutations from one Escherichia coli strain to another by using generalized transduction with the bacteriophage P1. This method requires that the mutation be selectable (e.g., based on gene disruptions using antibiotic cassette insertions). Such antibiotic cassettes can be mobilized from a donor strain and introduced into a recipient strain of interest to quickly and easily generate a gene deletion mutant. The antibiotic cassette can be designed to include flippase recognition sites that allow the excision of the cassette by a site-specific recombinase to produce a clean knock-out with only a ~100-base-pair-long scar sequence in the genome. We demonstrate the protocol by knocking out the tamA gene encoding an assembly factor involved in autotransporter biogenesis and test the effect of this knock-out on the biogenesis and function of two trimeric autotransporter adhesins. Though gene deletion by P1 transduction has its limitations, the ease and speed of its implementation make it an attractive alternative to other methods of gene deletion.

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Here we present a protocol for the use of pre-existing antibiotic resistance-cassette deletion constructs as a basis for making deletion mutants in other E. coli strains. Such deletion mutations can be mobilized and inserted into the corresponding locus of a recipient strain using P1 bacteriophage transduction.

הפקת ג'ין מחיקות ב- Escherichia coli מאת P1 התמרה חושית עם קלטות עמידות לאנטיביוטיקה ניתן לניתוח

A first approach to study the function of an unknown gene in bacteria is to create a knock-out of this gene. Here, we describe a robust and fast protocol ...

A Fluorescence-based Method to Study Bacterial Gene Regulation in Infected Tissues

Bacterial virulence genes are often regulated at the transcriptional level by multiple factors that respond to different environmental signals. Some factors act directly on virulence genes; others control pathogenesis by adjusting the expression of downstream regulators or the accumulation of signals that affect regulator activity. While regulation has been studied extensively during in vitro growth, relatively little is known about how gene expression is adjusted during infection. Such information is important when a particular gene product is a candidate for therapeutic intervention. Transcriptional approaches like quantitative, real-time RT-PCR and RNA-Seq are powerful ways to examine gene expression on a global level but suffer from many technical challenges including low abundance of bacterial RNA compared to host RNA, and sample degradation by RNases. Evaluating regulation using fluorescent reporters is relatively easy and can be multiplexed with fluorescent proteins with unique spectral properties. The method allows for single-cell, spatiotemporal analysis of gene expression in tissues that exhibit complex three-dimensional architecture and physiochemical gradients that affect bacterial regulatory networks. Such information is lost when data are averaged over the bulk population. Herein, we describe a method for quantifying gene expression in bacterial pathogens in situ. The method is based on simple tissue processing and direct observation of fluorescence from reporter proteins. We demonstrate the utility of this system by examining the expression of Staphylococcus aureus thermonuclease (nuc), whose gene product is required for immune evasion and full virulence ex vivo and in vivo. We show that nuc-gfp is strongly expressed in renal abscesses and reveal heterogeneous gene expression due in part to apparent spatial regulation of nuc promoter activity in abscesses fully engaged with the immune response. The method can be applied to any bacterium with a manipulatable genetic system and any infection model, providing valuable information for preclinical studies and drug development.

Described here is a method for analyzing bacterial gene expression in animal tissues at a cellular level. This method provides a resource for studying the phenotypic diversity occurring within a bacterial population in response to the tissue environment during an infection.

שיטה המבוססת על ידי קרינה פלואורסצנטית ללמוד הכונה חיידקי ברקמות נגוע

Bacterial virulence genes are often regulated at the transcriptional level by multiple factors that respond to different environmental signals. Some ...

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Phenotypes are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While physical interactions can indicate which bacterial proteins are associated as complexes, they do not necessarily reveal pathway-level functional relationships1. GI screens, in which the growth of double mutants bearing two deleted or inactivated genes is measured and compared to the corresponding single mutants, can illuminate epistatic dependencies between loci and hence provide a means to query and discover novel functional relationships2. Large-scale GI maps have been reported for eukaryotic organisms like yeast3-7, but GI information remains sparse for prokaryotes8, which hinders the functional annotation of bacterial genomes. To this end, we and others have developed high-throughput quantitative bacterial GI screening methods9, 10.
Here, we present the key steps required to perform quantitative E. coli Synthetic Genetic Array (eSGA) screening procedure on a genome-scale9, using natural bacterial conjugation and homologous recombination to systemically generate and measure the fitness of large numbers of double mutants in a colony array format. Briefly, a robot is used to transfer, through conjugation, chloramphenicol (Cm) - marked mutant alleles from engineered Hfr (High frequency of recombination) 'donor strains' into an ordered array of kanamycin (Kan) - marked F- recipient strains. Typically, we use loss-of-function single mutants bearing non-essential gene deletions (e.g. the 'Keio' collection11) and essential gene hypomorphic mutations (i.e. alleles conferring reduced protein expression, stability, or activity9, 12, 13) to query the functional associations of non-essential and essential genes, respectively. After conjugation and ensuing genetic exchange mediated by homologous recombination, the resulting double mutants are selected on solid medium containing both antibiotics. After outgrowth, the plates are digitally imaged and colony sizes are quantitatively scored using an in-house automated image processing system14. GIs are revealed when the growth rate of a double mutant is either significantly better or worse than expected9. Aggravating (or negative) GIs often result between loss-of-function mutations in pairs of genes from compensatory pathways that impinge on the same essential process2. Here, the loss of a single gene is buffered, such that either single mutant is viable. However, the loss of both pathways is deleterious and results in synthetic lethality or sickness (i.e. slow growth). Conversely, alleviating (or positive) interactions can occur between genes in the same pathway or protein complex2 as the deletion of either gene alone is often sufficient to perturb the normal function of the pathway or complex such that additional perturbations do not reduce activity, and hence growth, further. Overall, systematically identifying and analyzing GI networks can provide unbiased, global maps of the functional relationships between large numbers of genes, from which pathway-level information missed by other approaches can be inferred9.

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Systematic, large-scale synthetic genetic (gene-gene or epistasis) interaction screens can be used to explore genetic redundancy and pathway cross-talk. Here, we describe a high-throughput quantitative synthetic genetic array screening technology, termed eSGA that we developed for elucidating epistatic relationships and exploring genetic interaction networks in Escherichia coli.

מיפוי רשתות פונקציונליות חיידקיים ומסלולים ב<em&gt; חיידקי Escherichia</em&gt; באמצעות מערכים גנטיים סינטטיים

Phenotypes  are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and  functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While ...

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method makes it possible to count the numbers of protein molecules produced in one cell during sequential, five-minute time windows. It requires a fluorescence microscope with laser excitation power density of ~0.5 to 1 kW/cm2, which is sufficiently sensitive to detect single fluorescent protein molecules in live cells. The fluorescent reporter used in this method consists of three parts: a membrane targeting sequence, a fast-maturing, yellow fluorescent protein and a protease recognition sequence. The reporter is translationally fused to the N-terminus of a protein of interest. Cells are grown on a temperature-controlled microscope stage. Every five minutes, fluorescent molecules within cells are imaged (and later counted by analyzing fluorescence images) and subsequently photobleached so that only newly translated proteins are counted in the next measurement.
Fluorescence images resulting from this method can be analyzed by detecting fluorescent spots in each image, assigning them to individual cells and then assigning cells to cell lineages. The number of proteins produced within a time window in a given cell is calculated by dividing the integrated fluorescence intensity of spots by the average intensity of single fluorescent molecules. We used this method to measure expression levels in the range of 0-45 molecules in single 5 min time windows. This method enabled us to measure noise in the expression of the &lambda; repressor CI, and has many other potential applications in systems biology.

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC), to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method has been used to follow the stochastic expression dynamics of a transcription factor, the &lambda; repressor CI 1.

הדמית מולקולה הבודדה של רגולציה גנטית<em&gt; בחי</em&gt; שימוש הפעלת Cotranslational ידי מחשוף (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

הקרנה ירוקה פלורסנט מבוסס חלבון ביטוי של החלבונים ממברנה ב<em&gt; Coli Escherichia</em

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...

Generation of Marked and Markerless Mutants in Model Cyanobacterial Species

Cyanobacteria are ecologically important organisms and potential platforms for production of biofuels and useful industrial products. Genetic manipulation of cyanobacteria, especially model organisms such as Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and Synechococcus sp. PCC7002, is a key tool for both basic and applied research. Generation of unmarked mutants, whereby chromosomal alterations are introduced into a strain via insertion of an antibiotic resistance cassette (a manipulatable fragment of DNA containing one or more genes), followed by subsequent removal of this cassette using a negative selectable marker, is a particularly powerful technique. Unmarked mutants can be repeatedly genetically manipulated, allowing as many alterations to be introduced into a strain as desired. In addition, the absence of genes encoding antibiotic resistance proteins in the mutated strain is desirable, as it avoids the possibility of 'escape' of antibiotic resistant organisms into the environment. However, detailed methods for repeated rounds of genetic manipulation of cyanobacteria are not well described in the scientific literature. Here we provide a comprehensive description of this technique, which we have successfully used to generate mutants with multiple deletions, single point mutations within a gene of interest and insertion of novel gene cassettes.

Introducing multiple genomic alterations into cyanobacteria is an essential tool in the development of strains for industrial and basic research purposes. We describe a system for generating unmarked mutants in the model cyanobacterial species Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and marked mutants in Synechococcus sp. PCC7002.

הדור של מסומנים מוטאנטים Markerless במודל כחוליות המינים

Cyanobacteria are ecologically important organisms and potential platforms for production of biofuels and useful industrial products. Genetic manipulation ...

Live-Cell Imaging of Transcriptional Activity at DNA Double-Strand Breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are the most severe type of DNA damage. Despite the catastrophic consequences on genome integrity, it remains so far elusive how DSBs affect transcription. A reason for this was the lack of suitable tools to simultaneously monitor transcription and the induction of a genic DSB with sufficient temporal and spatial resolution. This work describes a set of new reporters that directly visualize transcription in live cells immediately after the induction of a DSB in the DNA template. Bacteriophage RNA stem-loops are employed to monitor the transcription with single-molecule sensitivity. For targetting the DSB to a specific gene region, the reporter genes are engineered to contain a single recognition sequence of the homing endonuclease I-SceI, otherwise absent from the human genome. A single copy of each reporter gene was integrated into the genome of human cell lines. This experimental system allows the detection of single RNA molecules generated by the canonical gene transcription or by DNA break-induced transcription initiation. These reporters provide an unprecedented opportunity for interpreting the reciprocal interactions between transcription and DNA damage and to disclose hitherto unappreciated aspects of DNA break-induced transcription.

This protocol presents a new reporter gene system and the experimental setup to detect transcription at DNA double-strand breaks with single-molecule sensitivity.

הדמיה של תאים חיים של פעילות תמלול בהפסקות דו-סטרנד DNA

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are the most severe type of DNA damage. Despite the catastrophic consequences on genome integrity, it remains so far ...

התרמת סתימה שכפול לאתרים ספציפיים ב

Summary

Explore More Videos

Chapters in this video