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P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RIPK1+blocks+early+postnatal+lethality+mediated+by+caspase-8+and+RIPK3.">RIPK1 blocks early postnatal lethality mediated by caspase-8 and RIPK3.</a> Cell. 157 (5), 1189-1202 (2014).</li><li>Rickard, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RIPK1+regulates+RIPK3-MLKL-driven+systemic+inflammation+and+emergency+hematopoiesis.">RIPK1 regulates RIPK3-MLKL-driven systemic inflammation and emergency hematopoiesis.</a> Cell. 157 (5), 1175-1188 (2014).</li><li>Kaiser, W. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toll-like+receptor+3-mediated+necrosis+via+TRIF,+RIP3,+and+MLKL.">Toll-like receptor 3-mediated necrosis via TRIF, RIP3, and MLKL.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 288 (43), 31268-31279 (2013).</li><li>Upton, J. W., Kaiser, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DAI+Another+Way:+Necroptotic+Control+of+Viral+Infection.">DAI Another Way: Necroptotic Control of Viral Infection.</a> Cell Host &amp; Microbe. 21 (3), 290-293 (2017).</li><li>Tanzer, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Necroptosis+signalling+is+tuned+by+phosphorylation+of+MLKL+residues+outside+the+pseudokinase+domain+activation+loop.">Necroptosis signalling is tuned by phosphorylation of MLKL residues outside the pseudokinase domain activation loop.</a> Biochemical Journal. 471 (2), 255-265 (2015).</li><li>Quarato, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+Engagement+of+Distinct+MLKL+Phosphatidylinositol-Binding+Sites+Executes+Necroptosis.">Sequential Engagement of Distinct MLKL Phosphatidylinositol-Binding Sites Executes Necroptosis.</a> Molecular Cell. 61 (4), 589-601 (2016).</li><li>Davies, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+brace+helices+of+MLKL+mediate+interdomain+communication+and+oligomerisation+to+regulate+cell+death+by+necroptosis.">The brace helices of MLKL mediate interdomain communication and oligomerisation to regulate cell death by necroptosis.</a> Cell Death &amp; Differentiation. , (2018).</li><li>Su, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+plug+release+mechanism+for+membrane+permeation+by+MLKL.">A plug release mechanism for membrane permeation by MLKL.</a> Structure. 22 (10), 1489-1500 (2014).</li><li>Dondelinger, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MLKL+compromises+plasma+membrane+integrity+by+binding+to+phosphatidylinositol+phosphates.">MLKL compromises plasma membrane integrity by binding to phosphatidylinositol phosphates.</a> Cell Reports. 7 (4), 971-981 (2014).</li><li>Llambi, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BOK+Is+a+Non-canonical+BCL-2+Family+Effector+of+Apoptosis+Regulated+by+ER-Associated+Degradation.">BOK Is a Non-canonical BCL-2 Family Effector of Apoptosis Regulated by ER-Associated Degradation.</a> Cell. 165 (2), 421-433 (2016).</li><li>Malkani, N., Schmid, J. 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אנו מספקים פרוטוקולים טכניקות שילבנו ל ערבו MLKL כמו המוציא בשם של קרום פלזמה קרע24. בנוסף לפענח את רשת גנטית המווסת בתיווך MLKL necroptosis, שיטות אלה ניתן באופן עצמאי לאפיון מערכות ביולוגיות מתאימים אחרים. מבחינה מעשית, טכניקות אלה הן כלי גילוי בינונית-נמוכה תפוקה.
באופ...

זיהוי רכיבים גנטיים של necroptosis הנחתה את השימוש במודלים לבחון את ההשלכה של necroptosis פיסיולוגיה ומחלות1,2,3,4,5. נוקאאוט של RIPK3 או MLKL בעכברים הייתה מינימלית במשתמע הומאוסטזיס מבוגר ופיתוח רומז ש-necroptosis זו אינה חיונית עבור החיים3,6. יתר על כן, מינים מסוימים אינם מכילים גנים או RIPK3 או MLKL, תומך את תפקיד שאינם חיוניים necroptosis של בעלי חיים7,8. מצד שני, מאתגר חייתיים נוקאאוט עם פתולוגיות שונות המושרה במעבדה חשף תפקיד חשוב של necroptosis דלקת, מולדת חסינות, זיהום נגיפי9,10, 11 , 12.
Necroptosis יכול להיות מופעל במספר דרכים על-ידי איתות באמצעות חיישנים שונים מולדת חסינות, כל אילו התוצאה הפעלת13,1,RIPK314. RIPK3 פעיל phosphorylates בתורו ומפעיל MLKL3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 ,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18. למד ביותר, אולי הדרך המורכבים ביותר, שמוביל הפעלה של RIPK3 כרוך מוות קולטן מצדו, אשר bifurcates מבוסס על הרכב במורד הזרם של מתחמי איתות לזירוז או אפופטוזיס או necroptosis1. Necroptosis מתפתח כאשר איתות באמצעות RIPK1 הוא המועדף ותוצאות האירוסין של RIPK319,20. התוצאה היא חביבה עליהם בקלות על עיכוב תרופתי או מחיקה גנטי של קספאז 8, מעכב אנדוגני בשם של necroptosis שמחזיק necroptosis במפרץ. RIPK1 נקשר ומפעיל RIPK3. דרך נוספת להפעיל את necroptosis היא דרך רצפטורים כמו אגרה TLR3/TLR4 איתות, אשר עוסקת ומפעיל RIPK3 דרך טיר-תחום-המכיל בתדר מתאם אינטרפרון-β (TRIF)21. עוד דרך נוספת למות על ידי necroptosis היא על-ידי הפעלת את חיישן ה-DNA דאי, אשר עוסקת ישירות ומפעיל RIPK322.
MLKL הוא חלבון cytosolic מורכב תחום bundle (NB) החורש N-מסוף, תחום pseudokinase C-מסוף (psKD) מקושרים על ידי אזור רגולטוריות מסולסל3. בתאים נורמליים, MLKL נמצא את ציטוזול שבו הוא חשב להיות קומפלקס לא פעיל עם RIPK314. הפעלה של necroptosis מפעיל זרחון RIPK3 של MLKL בתמונה ההפעלה של psKD, וכן אתרים נוספים שעלולים NB ו הסד3,15,23. זרחון גורם בשינוי הסתגלותי MLKL שתוצאתו דיסוציאציה מ RIPK314. ממעטים להבין שינויים הסתגלותי לשחרר את הסוגר המסולסל מ- psKD24. הסוגר, אשר מכיל את 2 helices, ומתווך oligomerization של MLKL לתוך trimer בשם דרך סליל C-מסוף25. הסליל N-מסוף הסוגר מעכב את התחום NB, אשר חיוני ממברנה permeabilization24,26. בבידוד, תחום NB מספיקה לגרום permeabilization קרום פלזמה ו-24,necroptosis16,27. פעילות פרו-necroptotic של NB הוקמה מחדש העכבר מתחלקים fibroblasts בנכונותם MLKL (mlkl- / - MEFs). NB הוא תחום הכריכה השומנים העוסק מעדיפים את diphosphate phosphatidylinositol 4.5 פוספוליפיד (פיפ2). אנחנו הציע מנגנון stepwise של ההפעלה של MLKL, שבו מסולסל oligomerization מקלה על גיוס של MLKL את קרום פלזמה דרך אינטראקציות החלש של NB עם קבוצה ראש קוטב2 24פיפ. -הקרום, NB עובר מוסדר חשיפה של אתר קשירה גבוהה-זיקה נוספים פיפ2, אשר מוסווה על ידי הסוגר המסולסל ב MLKL לא פעיל. בסך הכל, האינטראקציות מרובים של NB עם פיפ2 יציבות קרום פלזמה המוביל שלה קרע, למרות המנגנון המולקולרי של אירועים אלה לא הובהר.
כאן אנו ממחישים שיטות ספציפיות שימוש כדי לאפיין את הפונקציה של MLKL כמו המוציא להורג של necroptosis24. בפרט, אנו מתמקדים התחום הכי מזערי של MLKL, NB ו הסד (NBB), אשר מווסת על ידי עיכוב הסד והוא יכול להיות מופעל דרך dimerization שנאכפת לזירוז necroptosis ולמסמנים של קרום פלזמה. נתאר מערכת ביטוי inducible שלנו בשילוב עם שנאכפת שיכרון בתיווך FKBP dimerization עבור הדמיה לחיות תאים, ואלקטרון מיקרוסקופי של תאים שעברו necroptosis. בנוסף, אנו ממחישים את הניתוח שלנו במבחנה NMR של האינטראקציות של NBB עם phosphatidylinositols (פיפס).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1175px;" width="1174">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:429px;">Cloning and cell line generation</td>
			<td style="width:229px;"></td>
			<td style="width:323px;"></td>
			<td style="width:193px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pRetroX-TRE3G</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631188</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tet-On transactivator plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Llambi et al., 2016</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts (MEFs) mlkl-/-</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dillon et al., 2014</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Blasticidin S Hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP2647100 CAS#3513-03-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cell death quantification and live-cell microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Doxycycline</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631311 CAS# 24390-14-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">B/B Homodimerizer AP20187</td>
			<td>Takara</td>
			<td>635059 CAS# 195514-80-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SYTOX Green</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S7020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Syto16</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S7578</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NMR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">15N Ammonium Chloride</td>
			<td>Cambridge Isotope Laboratories</td>
			<td>NLM-467-10 CAS# 12125-02-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Deuterated DTT</td>
			<td>Cambridge Isotope Laboratories</td>
			<td>DLM-2622-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Deuterium Oxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>617385-1 CAS# 7789-20-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">n-Dodecyl-&#946;-D-Maltopyranoside</td>
			<td>Anatrace</td>
			<td>D310 CAS# 69227-93-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L-&#945;-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (Brain, Porcine) (ammonium salt)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840046X CAS# 383907-42-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoinositol (ammonium salt) (18:0 PI)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850143 CAS# 849412-67-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1&#39;-myo-inositol) (ammonium salt) (18:1)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850149 CAS# 799268-53-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Specialized Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IncuCyte FLR or ZOOM</td>
			<td>Essen BioScience, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Live-cell microscopy imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Helios NanoLab 660 DualBeam&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Electron microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IncuCyte 2011A Rev2 v20111.3.4288 (FLR)</td>
			<td>Essen BioScience, Inc.</td>
			<td>http://www.essenbioscience.com</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Imaging analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FEI MAPS</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>https://www.fei.com/software/maps/</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">EM analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TopSpin v3.2</td>
			<td>Bruker BioSpin</td>
			<td>http://www.bruker.com</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">NMR data collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CARA v1.9.1.7</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://cara.nmr.ch/&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">NMR data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:429px;">Slidebook</td>
			<td style="width:229px;">3i (Intelligent Imaging Innovations)</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">https://www.intelligent-imaging.com/slidebook</td>
			<td style="width:193px;">Confocal microscopy</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of mlkl-mediated plasma membrane rupture in necroptosis

Necroptosis הוא שביל מוות תאים מתוכנת המופעלות על-ידי הפעלה של קולטן אינטראקציה קינאז 3 (RIPK3), אשר phosphorylates ומפעיל את שושלת היוחסין מעורב קינאז כמו תחום pseudokinase, MLKL, קרע או permeabilize קרום פלזמה . Necroptosis הוא מסלול דלקתיות המשויך פתולוגיות מרובות, כולל מחלת חיסון עצמי, זיהומיות ומחלות לב וכלי דם, שבץ מוחי, הקשורים ניוון מוחיים של סרטן. כאן, אנו מתארים את הפרוטוקולים יכול לשמש כדי לאפיין MLKL כמו המוציא של קרום פלזמה קרע necroptosis. עלינו לדמיין את התהליך של necroptosis תאים באמצעות הדמיה לחיות תאים עם מיקרוסקופ קונפוקלי קונבנציונאלי פלורסצנטיות, וכן תאים קבוע באמצעות מיקרוסקופ אלקטרונים, אשר יחד חשף הפצה מחדש של MLKL מ ציטוזול כדי פלזמה ממברנה לפני אינדוקציה של חורים גדולים קרום הפלזמה. אנו מציגים במבחנה תהודה מגנטית גרעינית (NMR) ניתוח באמצעות ליפידים לזיהוי מאפננים בשם של necroptosis בתיווך MLKL. מבוסס על שיטה זו, אנו מזוהות phosphatidyl-אינוזיטול מלחי (פיפס) ונותנת השומנים מחייב כמותיים קלסרים קריטי של MLKL הנדרשים עבור מיקוד קרום פלזמה ו permeabilization ב necroptosis.

להמחיש necroptosis מוסדרים ביצוע בתאים חיים היה אפשר דרך ביטוי inducible של מבנה MLKL קטום מינימלית, NBB140-2xFV-ונוס. את המבנה הזה, שומר על היכולת לגרום permeabilization קרום פלזמה, מופעל באמצעות דים-induced oligomerization בקלטת FKBP (2xFV). עלינו להתבונן, לכמת necroptosis על ידי מיקרוסקופ לחיות תאים הדמיה, ניט?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of MLKL-mediated Plasma Membrane Rupture in Necroptosis at JoVE.com

Characterization of MLKL-mediated Plasma Membrane Rupture in Necroptosis

. מדווחים שיטות אפיון של קרום פלזמה בתיווך MLKL קרע necroptosis כולל מיקרוסקופ קונפוקלי קונבנציונאלי לחיות תאים הדמיה, סריקה מיקרוסקופ אלקטרונים, ואיגוד מבוסס-NMR השומנים.

אפיון של קרום פלזמה בתיווך MLKL קרע Necroptosis

Necroptosis is a programmed cell death pathway triggered by activation of receptor interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), which phosphorylates and ...

characterization-mlkl-mediated-plasma-membrane-rupture

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.7K Views.  St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. . מדווחים שיטות אפיון של קרום פלזמה בתיווך MLKL קרע necroptosis כולל מיקרוסקופ קונפוקלי קונבנציונאלי לחיות תאים הדמיה, סריקה מיקרוסקופ אלקטרונים, ואיגוד מבוסס-NMR השומנים.

Video: Characterization of MLKL-mediated Plasma Membrane Rupture in Necroptosis

Measuring Near Plasma Membrane and Global Intracellular Calcium Dynamics in Astrocytes

The brain contains glial cells.  Astrocytes, a type of glial cell, have long been known to provide a passive supportive role to neurons. However, increasing evidence suggests that astrocytes may also actively participate in brain function through functional interactions with neurons.  However, many fundamental aspects of astrocyte biology remain controversial, unclear and/or experimentally unexplored. One important issue is the dynamics of intracellular calcium transients in astrocytes. This is relevant because calcium is well established as an important second messenger and because it has been proposed that astrocyte calcium elevations can trigger the release of transmitters from astrocytes. However, there has not been any detailed or satisfying description of near plasma membrane calcium signaling in astrocytes. Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a powerful tool to analyze physiologically relevant signaling events within about 100 nm of the plasma membrane of live cells. Here, we use TIRF microscopy and describe how to monitor near plasma membrane and global intracellular calcium dynamics almost simultaneously. The further refinement and systematic application of this approach has the potential to inform about the precise details of astrocyte calcium signaling. A detailed understanding of astrocyte calcium dynamics may provide a basis to understand if, how, when and why astrocytes and neurons undergo calcium-dependent functional interactions.

We describe how to measure near membrane and global intracellular calcium dynamics in cultured astrocytes using total internal reflection and epifluorescence microscopy.

מדידת הקרוב ממברנה פלזמה ו Global Dynamics סידן תאיים בתוך האסטרוציטים

The brain contains glial cells.  Astrocytes, a type of glial cell, have long been known to provide a passive supportive role to neurons. However, ...

Measuring Plasma Membrane Protein Endocytic Rates by Reversible Biotinylation

Plasma membrane proteins are a large, diverse group of proteins comprised of receptors, ion channels, transporters and pumps.  Activity of these proteins is responsible for a variety of key cellular events, including nutrient delivery, cellular excitability, and chemical signaling.  Many plasma membrane proteins are dynamically regulated by endocytic trafficking, which modulates protein function by altering protein surface expression.  The mechanisms that facilitate protein endocytosis are complex and are not fully understood for many membrane proteins.  In order to fully understand the mechanisms that control the endocytic trafficking of a given protein, it is critical that the protein s endocytic rate be precisely measured.  For many receptors, direct endocytic rate measurements are frequently achieved utilizing labeled receptor ligands.  However, for many classes of membrane proteins, such as transporters, pumps and ion channels, there is no convenient ligand that can be used to measure the endocytic rate.  In the present report, we describe a reversible biotinylation method that we employ to measure the dopamine transporter (DAT) endocytic rate.  This method provides a straightforward approach to measuring internalization rates, and can be easily employed for trafficking studies of most membrane proteins.

Regulated endocytosis governs the cell surface expression levels of the majority of membrane proteins. Here we utilize reducible, membrane impermeant biotinylation reagents to measure the endocytic rate of the dopamine transporter (DAT), a polytopic membrane protein. The method facilitates a straightforward approach to measuring the endocytic rate of most plasma membrane proteins.

מדידת חלבון ממברנה פלזמה חליפין Endocytic ידי Biotinylation הפיך

Plasma membrane proteins are a large, diverse group of proteins comprised of receptors, ion channels, transporters and pumps.  Activity of these proteins ...

Quantitative Measurement of GLUT4 Translocation to the Plasma Membrane by Flow Cytometry

Glucose is the main source of energy for the body, requiring constant regulation of its blood concentration. Insulin release by the pancreas induces glucose uptake by insulin-sensitive tissues, most notably the brain, skeletal muscle, and adipocytes. Patients suffering from type-2 diabetes and/or obesity often develop insulin resistance and are unable to control their glucose homeostasis. New insights into the mechanisms of insulin resistance may provide new treatment strategies for type-2 diabetes.
The GLUT family of glucose transporters consists of thirteen members distributed on different tissues throughout the body1. Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) is the major transporter that mediates glucose uptake by insulin sensitive tissues, such as the skeletal muscle. Upon binding of insulin to its receptor, vesicles containing GLUT4 translocate from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane, inducing glucose uptake. Reduced GLUT4 translocation is one of the causes of insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes2,3.
The translocation of GLUT4 from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane can be visualized by immunocytochemistry, using fluorophore-conjugated GLUT4-specific antibodies.
Here, we describe a technique to quantify total amounts of GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane of cells during a chosen duration, using flow cytometry. This protocol is rapid (less than 4 hours, including incubation with insulin) and allows the analysis of as few as 3,000 cells or as many as 1 million cells per condition in a single experiment. It relies on anti-GLUT4 antibodies directed to an external epitope of the transporter that bind to it as soon as it is exposed to the extracellular medium after translocation to the plasma membrane.

This protocol describes a rapid technique to quantify the translocation of GLUT4 from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane of cells by flow cytometry.

מדידה כמותית של טרנסלוקציה GLUT4 על קרום התא על ידי זרימת cytometry

Glucose is the main source of energy for the body, requiring constant regulation of its blood concentration. Insulin release by the pancreas induces ...

Mapping Molecular Diffusion in the Plasma Membrane by Multiple-Target Tracing (MTT)

Our goal is to obtain a comprehensive description of molecular processes occurring at cellular membranes in different biological functions. We aim at characterizing the complex organization and dynamics of the plasma membrane at single-molecule level, by developing analytic tools dedicated to Single-Particle Tracking (SPT) at high density: Multiple-Target Tracing (MTT)1. Single-molecule videomicroscopy, offering millisecond and nanometric resolution1-11, allows a detailed representation of membrane organization12-14 by accurately mapping descriptors such as cell receptors localization, mobility, confinement or interactions.
We revisited SPT, both experimentally and algorithmically. Experimental aspects included optimizing setup and cell labeling, with a particular emphasis on reaching the highest possible labeling density, in order to provide a dynamic snapshot of molecular dynamics as it occurs within the membrane. Algorithmic issues concerned each step used for rebuilding trajectories: peaks detection, estimation and reconnection, addressed by specific tools from image analysis15,16. Implementing deflation after detection allows rescuing peaks initially hidden by neighboring, stronger peaks. Of note, improving detection directly impacts reconnection, by reducing gaps within trajectories. Performances have been evaluated using Monte-Carlo simulations for various labeling density and noise values, which typically represent the two major limitations for parallel measurements at high spatiotemporal resolution.
The nanometric accuracy17 obtained for single molecules, using either successive on/off photoswitching or non-linear optics, can deliver exhaustive observations. This is the basis of nanoscopy methods17 such as STORM18, PALM19,20, RESOLFT21 or STED22,23, which may often require imaging fixed samples. The central task is the detection and estimation of diffraction-limited peaks emanating from single-molecules. Hence, providing adequate assumptions such as handling a constant positional accuracy instead of Brownian motion, MTT is straightforwardly suited for nanoscopic analyses. Furthermore, MTT can fundamentally be used at any scale: not only for molecules, but also for cells or animals, for instance. Hence, MTT is a powerful tracking algorithm that finds applications at molecular and cellular scales.

Mapping Molecular Diffusion in the Plasma Membrane by Multiple-Target Tracing MTT

Multiple-Target Tracing is a homemade algorithm developed for tracking individually labeled molecules within the plasma membrane of living cells. Efficiently detecting, estimating and tracing molecules over time at high-density provide a user-friendly, comprehensive tool to investigate nanoscale membrane dynamics.

מיפוי דיפוזיה מולקולרית בקרום פלזמה ידי מרובות יעד Tracing (MTT)

Our goal is to obtain a comprehensive description of molecular processes occurring at cellular membranes in different biological functions. We aim at ...

Use of a Robot for High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX). An essential ingredient of MX is a steady supply of ideally diffraction-quality crystals. The in meso or lipidic cubic phase (LCP) method for crystallizing membrane proteins is one of several methods available for crystallizing membrane proteins. It makes use of a bicontinuous mesophase in which to grow crystals. As a method, it has had some spectacular successes of late and has attracted much attention with many research groups now interested in using it. One of the challenges associated with the method is that the hosting mesophase is extremely viscous and sticky, reminiscent of a thick toothpaste. Thus, dispensing it manually in a reproducible manner in small volumes into crystallization wells requires skill, patience and a steady hand. A protocol for doing just that was developed in the Membrane Structural &amp; Functional Biology (MS&amp;FB) Group1-3. JoVE video articles describing the method are available1,4. 
The manual approach for setting up in meso trials has distinct advantages with specialty applications, such as crystal optimization and derivatization. It does however suffer from being a low throughput method. Here, we demonstrate a protocol for performing in meso crystallization trials robotically. A robot offers the advantages of speed, accuracy, precision, miniaturization and being able to work continuously for extended periods under what could be regarded as hostile conditions such as in the dark, in a reducing atmosphere or at low or high temperatures. An in meso robot, when used properly, can greatly improve the productivity of membrane protein structure and function research by facilitating crystallization which is one of the slow steps in the overall structure determination pipeline. 
In this video article, we demonstrate the use of three commercially available robots that can dispense the viscous and sticky mesophase integral to in meso crystallogenesis. The first robot was developed in the MS&amp;FB Group5,6. The other two have recently become available and are included here for completeness.	
An overview of the protocol covered in this article is presented in Figure 1. All manipulations were performed at room temperature (~20 &deg;C) under ambient conditions.

Herein is described a robotic approach to high-throughput crystallization of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases for use in structure determination using macromolecular X-ray crystallography. Three robots capable of handling the viscous and sticky protein-laden mesophase integral to the method are introduced.

שימוש ברובוט להתגבשות תפוקה גבוהה של חלבונים בממברנה בMesophases Lipidic

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through ...

The Cell-based L-Glutathione Protection Assays to Study Endocytosis and Recycling of Plasma Membrane Proteins

Membrane trafficking involves transport of proteins from the plasma membrane to the cell interior (i.e. endocytosis) followed by trafficking to lysosomes for degradation or to the plasma membrane for recycling. The cell based L-glutathione protection assays can be used to study endocytosis and recycling of protein receptors, channels, transporters, and adhesion molecules localized at the cell surface. The endocytic assay requires labeling of cell surface proteins with a cell membrane impermeable biotin containing a disulfide bond and the N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester at 4 &#186;C -&#160;a temperature at which membrane trafficking does not occur. Endocytosis of biotinylated plasma membrane proteins is induced by incubation at 37 &#186;C. Next, the temperature is decreased again to 4 &#186;C to stop endocytic trafficking and the disulfide bond in biotin covalently attached to proteins that have remained at the plasma membrane is reduced with L-glutathione. At this point, only proteins that were endocytosed remain protected from L-glutathione and thus remain biotinylated. After cell lysis, biotinylated proteins are isolated with streptavidin agarose, eluted from agarose, and the biotinylated protein of interest is detected by western blotting. During the recycling assay, after biotinylation cells are incubated at 37 &#176;C to load endocytic vesicles with biotinylated proteins and the disulfide bond in biotin covalently attached to proteins remaining at the plasma membrane is reduced with L-glutathione at 4 &#186;C as in the endocytic assay. Next, cells are incubated again at 37 &#176;C to allow biotinylated proteins from endocytic vesicles to recycle to the plasma membrane. Cells are then incubated at 4 &#186;C, and the disulfide bond in biotin attached to proteins that recycled to the plasma membranes is reduced with L-glutathione. The biotinylated proteins protected from L-glutathione are those that did not recycle to the plasma membrane.

Membrane trafficking involves transport of proteins from the plasma membrane to the cell interior (i.e. endocytosis) followed by trafficking to lysosomes for degradation or to the plasma membrane for recycling. Methods described in this article are designed to study endocytosis and recycling of plasma membrane proteins.

Membrane trafficking involves transport of proteins from the plasma membrane to the cell interior (i.e. endocytosis) followed by trafficking to lysosomes ...

Imaging Plasma Membrane Deformations With pTIRFM

To gain novel insights into the dynamics of exocytosis, our group focuses on the changes in lipid bilayer shape that must be precisely regulated during the fusion of vesicle and plasma membranes. These rapid and localized changes are achieved by dynamic interactions between lipids and specialized proteins that control membrane curvature. The absence of such interactions would not only have devastating consequences for vesicle fusion, but a host of other cellular functions that involve control of membrane shape. In recent years, the identity of a number of proteins with membrane-shaping properties has been determined. What remains missing is a roadmap of when, where, and how they act as fusion and content release progress.
Our understanding of the molecular events that enable membrane remodeling has historically been limited by a lack of analytical methods that are sensitive to membrane curvature or have the temporal resolution to track rapid changes. PTIRFM satisfies both of these criteria. We discuss how pTIRFM is implemented to visualize and interpret rapid, submicron changes in the orientation of chromaffin cell membranes during dense core vesicle (DCV) fusion. The chromaffin cells we use are isolated from bovine adrenal glands. The membrane is stained with a lipophilic carbocyanine dye,1,1&#39;-dioctadecyl-3,3,3&#39;,3&#39;-tetramethylindodicarbocyanine, 4-chlorobenzenesulfonate, or&#160;diD. DiD intercalates in the membrane plane with a &#34;fixed&#34; orientation and is therefore sensitive to the polarization of the evanescent field. The diD-stained cell membrane is sequentially excited with orthogonal polarizations of a 561&#160;nm laser (p-pol, s-pol). A 488&#160;nm laser is used to visualize vesicle constituents and time the moment of fusion. Exocytosis is triggered by locally perfusing cells with a depolarizing KCl solution. Analysis is performed offline using custom-written software to understand how diD emission intensity changes relate to fusion pore dilation.

Polarization-based Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (pTIRFM) enables real-time detection of cell membrane dynamics. This article describes the implementation of pTIRFM for the study of membrane remodeling during regulated exocytosis. The technique is generalizable to other processes in cell biology that directly or indirectly involve changes in membrane shape.

הדמיה פלזמה ממברנה עיוותים עם pTIRFM

To gain novel insights into the dynamics of exocytosis, our group focuses on the changes in lipid bilayer shape that must be precisely regulated during ...

Functional Characterization of Na+/H+ Exchangers of Intracellular Compartments Using Proton-killing Selection to Express Them at the Plasma Membrane

Endosomal acidification is critical for a wide range of processes, such as protein recycling and degradation, receptor desensitization, and neurotransmitter loading in synaptic vesicles. This acidification is described to be mediated by proton ATPases, coupled to ClC chloride transporters. Highly-conserved electroneutral protons transporters, the Na+/H+ exchangers (NHE) 6, 7 and 9 are also expressed in these compartments. Mutations in their genes have been linked with human cognitive and neurodegenerative diseases. Paradoxically, their roles remain elusive, as their intracellular localization has prevented detailed functional characterization. This manuscript shows a method to solve this problem. This consists of the selection of mutant cell lines, capable of surviving acute cytosolic acidification by retaining intracellular NHEs at the plasma membrane. It then depicts two complementary protocols to measure the ion selectivity and activity of these exchangers: (i) one based on intracellular pH measurements using fluorescence video microscopy, and (ii) one based on the fast kinetics of lithium uptake. Such protocols can be extrapolated to measure other non-electrogenic transporters. Furthermore, the selection procedure presented here generates cells with an intracellular retention defective phenotype. Therefore these cells will also express other vesicular membrane proteins at the plasma membrane. The experimental strategy depicted here may therefore constitute a potentially powerful tool to study other intracellular proteins that will be then expressed at the plasma membrane together with the vesicular Na+/H+ exchangers used for the selection.

Functional Characterization of Na+/H+ Exchangers of Intracellular Compartments Using Proton-killing Selection to Express Them at the Plasma Membrane

The first part of this article shows how to select mutant cell lines expressing vesicular Na+/H+ exchangers at their plasma membrane. The second part provides protocols based on intracellular pH measurements and fast ion uptake, which are used to determine the ion selectivity and the kinetic parameters of these exchangers.

אפיון פונקציונלי של Na<sup&gt; +</sup&gt; / H<sup&gt; +</sup&gt; מחליפי של תאיים תאים לשימוש Proton-הרג בחירה לבטא אותם בקרום פלזמה

Endosomal acidification is critical for a wide range of processes, such as protein recycling and degradation, receptor desensitization, and ...

Microperfusion Technique to Investigate Regulation of Microvessel Permeability in Rat Mesentery

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular mechanisms regulating vascular permeability in cultured endothelial cell monolayers and the functional exchange properties of whole microvascular beds. A method to cannulate and perfuse venular microvessels of rat mesentery and measure the hydraulic conductivity of the microvessel wall is described. The main equipment needed includes an intravital microscope with a large modified stage that supports micromanipulators to position three different microtools: (1) a beveled glass micropipette to cannulate and perfuse the microvessel; (2) a glass micro-occluder to transiently block perfusion and enable measurement of transvascular water flow movement at a measured hydrostatic pressure, and (3) a blunt glass rod to stabilize the mesenteric tissue at the site of cannulation. The modified Landis micro-occlusion technique uses red cells suspended in the artificial perfusate as markers of transvascular fluid movement, and also enables repeated measurements of these flows as experimental conditions are changed and hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure difference across the microvessels are carefully controlled. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity first using a control perfusate, then after re-cannulation of the same microvessel with the test perfusates enable paired comparisons of the microvessel response under these well-controlled conditions. Attempts to extend the method to microvessels in the mesentery of mice with genetic modifications expected to modify vascular permeability were severely limited because of the absence of long straight and unbranched microvessels in the mouse mesentery, but the recent availability of the rats with similar genetic modifications using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology is expected to open new areas of investigation where the methods described herein can be applied.

The modified Landis technique enables paired measurement of the hydraulic conductivity of individual microvessels in the mesentery of normal and genetically modified rats under control and test conditions using microperfusion techniques. It provides a convenient method to evaluate mechanisms that regulate microvessel permeability and transvascular exchange under physiological conditions.

Microperfusion טכניקה לחקירת הסדרת כלי דם קטן חדירות בחולדה לפדר

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular ...

Ground State Depletion Super-resolution Imaging in Mammalian Cells

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to dramatic leaps in our understanding of how cells function. The development and availability of super-resolution microscopy has considerably extended the limits of optical resolution from ~250-20 nm. Biologists are no longer limited to describing molecular interactions in terms of colocalization within a diffraction limited area, rather it is now possible to visualize the dynamic interactions of individual molecules. Here, we outline a protocol for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins by ground-state depletion microscopy&#160;for fixed cell imaging. We provide examples from two different membrane proteins, an element of the endoplasmic reticulum translocon, sec61&#946;, and a plasma membrane-localized voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2). Discussed are the specific microscope parameters, fixation methods, photo-switching buffer formulation, and pitfalls and challenges of image processing.

This article outlines a protocol for the detection of one or more plasma and/or intracellular membrane proteins using Ground State Depletion (GSD) super-resolution microscopy in mammalian cells. Here, we discuss the benefits and considerations of using such approaches for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins.

הדמיה סופר-ברזולוציה המחסור בקרקע בתאים בתרבית

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to ...