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How to Ignite an Atmospheric Pressure Microwave Plasma Torch without Any Additional Igniters

This movie shows how an atmospheric pressure plasma torch can be ignited by microwave power with no additional igniters. After ignition of the plasma, a ...

University of Stuttgart

Many viruses encode proteins that inhibit the induction of programmed cell death at the mitochondrial checkpoint. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) encodes the m38.5 protein, which localizes to mitochondria and protects human HeLa cells and fibroblasts from apoptosis triggered by proteasome inhibitors but not from Fas-induced apoptosis. However, the ability of this protein to suppress the apoptosis of murine cells and its role during MCMV infection have not been investigated previously. Here we show that m38.5 is expressed at early time points during MCMV infection. Cells infected with MCMVs lacking m38.5 showed increased sensitivity to cell death induced by staurosporine, MG132, or the viral infection itself compared to the sensitivity of cells infected with wild-type MCMV. This defect was eliminated when an m38.5 or Bcl-X(L) gene was inserted into the genome of a deletion mutant. Using fibroblasts deficient in the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins Bak and/or Bax, we further demonstrated that m38.5 protected from Bax- but not Bak-mediated apoptosis and interacted with Bax in infected cells. These results consolidate the role of m38.5 as a viral mitochondrion-localized inhibitor of apoptosis and its functional similarity to the human cytomegalovirus UL37x1 gene product. Although the m38.5 gene is not homologous to the UL37x1 gene at the sequence level, m38.5 is conserved among rodent cytomegaloviruses. Moreover, the fact that MCMV-infected cells are protected from both Bak- and Bax-mediated cell death suggests that MCMV possesses an additional, as-yet-unidentified mechanism to block Bak-mediated apoptosis.

Murine cytomegalovirus m38.5 protein inhibits Bax-mediated cell death.

Escherichia coli catabolizes L-tartrate under anaerobic conditions to oxaloacetate by the use of L-tartrate/succinate antiporter TtdT and L-tartrate dehydratase TtdAB. Subsequently, L-malate is channelled into fumarate respiration and degraded to succinate by the use of fumarase FumB and fumarate reductase FrdABCD. The genes encoding the latter pathway (dcuB, fumB and frdABCD) are transcriptionally activated by the DcuS-DcuR two-component system. Expression of the L-tartrate-specific ttdABT operon encoding TtdAB and TtdT was stimulated by the LysR-type gene regulator TtdR in the presence of L- and meso-tartrate, and repressed by O(2) and nitrate. Anaerobic expression required a functional fnr gene, and nitrate repression depended on NarL and NarP. Expression of ttdR, encoding TtdR, was repressed by O(2), nitrate and glucose, and positively regulated by TtdR and DcuS. Purified TtdR specifically bound to the ttdR-ttdA promoter region. TtdR was also required for full expression of the DcuS-DcuR-dependent dcuB gene in the presence of tartrate. Overall, expression of the ttdABT genes is subject to L-/meso-tartrate-dependent induction, and to aerobic and nitrate repression. The control is exerted directly at ttdA and in addition indirectly by regulating TtdR levels. TtdR recognizes a subgroup (L- and meso-tartrate) of the stimuli perceived by the sensor DcuS, which responds to all C(4)-dicarboxylates; both systems apparently communicate by mutual regulation of the regulatory genes.

Regulation of tartrate metabolism by TtdR and relation to the DcuS-DcuR-regulated C4-dicarboxylate metabolism of Escherichia coli.

The immediate-early 1 (IE1) and IE2 proteins encoded by the major immediate-early (MIE) transcription unit of cytomegaloviruses are thought to play key roles in the switch between latent- and lytic-cycle infection. Whilst IE2 is essential for triggering the lytic cycle, the exact roles of IE1 have not been resolved. An MIE-exon 4-deleted rat cytomegalovirus (DeltaIE1) failed to synthesize the IE1 protein and did not disperse promyelocytic leukaemia bodies early post-infection, but was still capable of normal replication in fibroblast cell culture. However, DeltaIE1 had a diminished ability to infect salivary glands persistently in vivo and to reactivate from spleen explant cultures ex vivo. Quantification of viral genomes in spleens of infected animals revealed a reduced amount of DeltaIE1 virus produced during acute infection, suggesting a role for IE1 as a regulator in establishing a chronic or persistent infection, rather than in influencing the latency or reactivation processes more directly.

Deletion of the rat cytomegalovirus immediate-early 1 gene results in a virus capable of establishing latency, but with lower levels of acute virus replication and latency that compromise reactivation efficiency.

Cytomegaloviruses, representatives of the Betaherpesvirinae, cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts. They infect various cells and tissues in their natural host but are highly species specific. For instance, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) does not replicate in mouse cells, and human cells are not permissive for murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are so far poorly understood. In the present study we isolated and characterized a spontaneously occurring MCMV mutant that has gained the capacity to replicate rapidly and to high titers in human cells. Compared to the parental wild-type (wt) virus, this mutant formed larger nuclear replication compartments and replicated viral DNA more efficiently. It also disrupted promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein nuclear domains with greater efficiency but caused less apoptosis than did wt MCMV. Sequence analysis of the mutant virus genome revealed mutations in the M112/M113-coding region. This region is homologous to the HCMV UL112-113 region and encodes the viral early 1 (E1) proteins, which are known to play an important role in viral DNA replication. By introducing the M112/M113 mutations into wt MCMV, we demonstrated that they are sufficient to facilitate MCMV replication in human cells and are, at least in part, responsible for the efficient replication capability of the spontaneously adapted virus. However, additional mutations probably contribute as well. These results reveal a previously unrecognized role of the viral E1 proteins in regulating viral replication in different cells and provide new insights into the mechanisms of the species specificity of cytomegaloviruses.

Mutations in the M112/M113-coding region facilitate murine cytomegalovirus replication in human cells.

Ever since their first isolation 60 years ago, cytomegaloviruses have been recognized as being highly species specific. They replicate only in cells of their own or a closely related host species, while cells of phylogenetically more distant hosts are usually not permissive for viral replication. For instance, human cytomegalovirus replicates in human and chimpanzee fibroblasts but not in rodent cells, and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) replicates in cells of mice and rats but not in primate cells. However, the viral and cellular factors determining the narrow host range of cytomegaloviruses have remained largely unknown. We show that MCMV can be adapted stepwise to replicate in cultured human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE-1) cells and human fibroblasts. The human RPE-1 cells used for the initial adaptation step showed a pronounced contact inhibition and produced very low level of interferon-β transcripts upon cytomegalovirus infection, suggesting that these cells provide a particularly favorable environment for adaptation. By whole genome sequencing of the 230 kbp viral genomes of several adapted mutants, a limited number of mutations were detected. Comparison of several human cell-adapted MCMV clones and introduction of specific mutations into the wild-type MCMV genome by site-directed mutagenesis allows for the identification of viral host range determinants and provides the basis for elucidating the molecular basis of the cytomegalovirus host species specificity.

Uwe Schumacher

Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology

University of Stuttgart

How to Ignite an Atmospheric Pressure Microwave Plasma Torch without Any Additional Igniters